Ancient Chinese Philosophy Final Synthesis Paper

Ancient Chinese Philosophy Final Synthesis Paper

I. Confucius

According to Brown (2002), values are “core beliefs that individuals experience as standards that guide how they ‘should’ function in order to attain a desired end state” and so a great deal of importance is stressed on the significance of values and virtues in the discipline of Chinese philosophy, may it be in the philosophy of Confucius or Lao Tzu. In order for man to be able to live according to the Way, he must live rightly and by this, the way is for him to achieve the end goal of both schools of philosophy by cultivating himself through virtues. The role of virtues in the development of man is to aid him attain social harmony and become the desirable end goal- the sage worthy of being a philosopher-king. 

Now, we are presented with the philosophical problem- the Way has not prevailed for a long time. And this Way is the Great Way, the Tao, and because is has not prevailed for a long time, there is the absence of social harmony. The people of Ancient China had not been living their lives according to the Way. The Tao is lost and with it came all sorts of problem that have disrupted social harmony in the community and in the state. People have forgotten the right way to live- people have forgotten how to live according to the Tao. People are no longer cultivated and so they are no longer living in virtue, their values are but lost to them. The loss of virtues in the lives of the many have led them to an incorrect life and from this, mistakes begot mistakes. So Confucius presented philosophy as the guiding light back to the Tao and back to a life lived in virtues. 

The loss of virtues in the lives of the many have led them to live carelessly and take things for granted and so people no longer care if names did not match according to their actualities nor if a guard becomes a minister. The non-correspondence of names toward their given actualities became the root cause of social disorder and because the people had been negligent in their ways and have forgotten the Tao, their awareness on this matter is lost to them. 

In order to correct this problem and provide a solution for social disorder, Confucius presented that the people should rectify names. The scope of a rectified name is not only in their corresponding actualities but it extends to people’s ranks, duties, and function (Wing, 1963, p. 41). The rectification of names and actualities will turn the track switch to return the train back to the direction that it should head to. If names are properly used and people are properly seated in their places then this would mean that things are being done correctly. It means that the people are living correctly and according to the Tao. Becoming aware of this problem and aiding it with the solution of the rectification of names and actualities will gradually pave the way for a virtuous life. The cultivation of man is a way to restore back the values that the people have lost along the way and it will also allow them to acquire more. If people are properly cultivated then people will have values that will serve as guides for them to live a correct life that will direct and motivate their actions to use names correctly and become the people that they ought to be in the society. Now we can see the importance of virtues in the cultivation of man since they motivate action and serves as standards for them to pursue their goals (Schwartz, 2012). Through virtues, man will be able to think whether or not their actions are right or wrong and decide which is good and which is bad based on the values that they have nurtured within them. Through philosophising, the power of proper discernment will come to man.

Philosophising will foster one to acquire the virtues needed for proper self-cultivation and it is through establishing the root and grounding oneself to the Tao is the catalyst that will direct him to the supreme end. Man is born with uprightness and man should use this intrinsic advantage for him to emerge from the state of inferiority. If properly maintained, this goodness in him will be manifested through his actions and it will continue to grow, leading him to do good to others. Because he is upright and because the Tao is embedded in his being, he will grow into a person worthy of his name. Man should utilise his goodness and his “innate appetite for knowledge” (Rosen, 2000, xv) to help him understand and think correctly about what is happening around him. Active thinking will allow him to understand why it is important for him to cultivate himself and help him achieve social harmony. Nietzsche (1974) believes that “the strength of knowledge depends on the edge to which is that been incorporated, on its character as a condition of life”. Discipline the body and mind according to the Tao and promulgate virtues to strengthen the character will educate and prepare an individual to live a life directed towards social harmony and reach the utmost stage of the development of the superior man.

Moses Maimonides’ The Guide for the Perplexed laid down the qualities of the both the prophet and the wise men. He described the constitutions of such a man as: …he must in addition have studied and acquired wisdom, so that his rational faculty passes from a state of potentiality to that of actuality his intellect must be as developed and perfect as human intellect can be; his passions pure and equally balanced; all his desires must aim at obtaining a knowledge of the hidden laws and causes that are in for in the Universe; his thoughts must be engages in lofty matters and an absence of lower desires and appetites… In addition, Maimonides furthered the qualities of the prophet that is very much similar to qualities of the Confucian gentleman- the prophet’s mental faculty will only be within the boundary of having knowledge that is real and that his thoughts (and actions) should be directed to general principles that would lead to the cultivation of social human relations. Those above are said to be two of the three kinds of perfection: mental perfection acquired by training and moral perfection produced by the suppression of every though of bodily pleasures, and of every kind of foolish of evil ambition (Rosen, 2000, p. 139-140). In this context, what was written above described the ideal human being.  

Analogous to this is how Confucius believes what a man should be and that in order for man to live in social harmony and become a sage is to cultivate himself by having the virtues of human-heartedness, filial piety and brotherly respect, propriety, wisdom, and righteousness. To do this is to set the will on the Way, have a first grasp on virtue, rely on humanity, and find recreation is the arts. Eastern schools of thoughts have always been directed at the improvement of the self, only varying in their end goals. The underlying thought of India’s Bhagavad-Gita enters on the idea that man should move out of Earth or the material world and transcend to the spiritual realm where the gods reside through the discipline of the self, especially the mind, from the influences of illusion and the desires brought upon by the material world. The significance in this is that Chen Lai, in her study on Studying Chinese Philosophy: Turn of the Century’s Challenges, she duly noted that the Eastern philosophical tradition were divided into Indian and Chinese Philosophy. Both have similarities in the cultivation of the person to achieve a desired end state. In the Indian context, this may entirely be religious only because the goal is directed to a Supreme Being instead of the elevation of the self as the ultimate end. Most of the early Japanese texts are usually headed as the “art of this” or the “way of that”. What “art” and what “way” mean are but methods- methods that when properly observe can bring about the desired result. The bottomline is that the Eastern discipline is a discipline about self-mastery and cultivation of the self. In order to become a full-pledged Japanese warrior you have to follow the way of the samurai. In order to triumph in the battlefield you have to master the art of war and so on and so forth. Same is true in the cultivation of the ideal human being. 

In himself, he must be that very person who adheres to the way of the Tao and embody the virtues of humanity, filial piety, propriety, wisdom, and righteousness. However, this is not an easy feat. Juggling all these virtues at once do sound impossible and that is why the chun-tzu is a development and like the person, they grow and mature with one another through the course of time. It is also important to note that the motivation behind this cultivation of the self is not entirely limited to the benefit of the agent alone but also for the benefit of others simply because he is a man of humanity and his actions are directed towards the desire to achieve social harmony. What makes the chun-tzu superior is that he is able to transcend beyond the confines of inferior desires like greed, material things, profit, and whatnot. Instead, he is guided by the virtues of humanity (jen), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), and wisdom (chih). 

As a social-moral philosophy, the cardinal virtue of benevolence is of primary importance in the development of the superior man. Without jen or the virtue of humanity, he cannot be what the the Analects purports him to be. As a social-relational being, he understands that he is not isolated- he understands that he is socially defined, first and foremost, by his family. He understands that the family, as the very basic unit of society, is the very first teacher that will establish the grounds and prepare him for self-development. It is in his family where man learns the meaning of family, how to love and respect his elders, brothers and sister, and it is where he learns how to relate with others in goodwill. 

Benevolence is also very social and relational because there needs to be a person who does the action and a person who, in turns, receives the action. Schwartz (2012) coined benevolence as something that “emphasise voluntary concern for others’ welfare. In Confucianism, this can be seen as human-heartedness and it’s very definition can also be translated into altruism. To love man is jen and according to Mencius, “to have a heart that cannot bear to see others” is also jen (Nadeau, 2012). The implication of the Confucian jen and the common benevolence cannot be without an another.  

Propriety is first learned in the family and what they basically are are shared experiences that can be manifested through rites and rituals. The richness and the value of tradition in Ancient China plays a major role in the creation and the development of the Chinese culture and society and it has very much influenced the Chinese identity. According to Lev Vygotsky, man, as a social being, cannot be separated from man and his environment. What a man should be is one who knows how to value propriety in his life and understand how important they are for the society. Along with the values of righteousness and wisdom, a man who have these cardinal values instilled in him will do right by himself and by others. Through his learnings, he will come to understand the importance, the worth of these values, and the role that they play in his continuous development. By living out these virtues in home, he will grow up and bring them outside, performing it out to a much larger field selflessly. Having been trained at home, he will carry all his learnings to his office and treat the people an extension of his primary family. He will treat the people equally and rightly, respect them and listen to them. He will do his obligations righteously and use all his wisdom for the benefit of the society. Anyone can be qualified in becoming a leader but only it is only the superior man who is fit and worthy to become one.

By being such, he will inspire others to do the same and so natural harmony in the society will be achieved if such a superior man will take seat in leading the people. His selfless devotion to everyone in the society will allow humanity to thrive and bring harmony to everyone. Therefore the key is for man to understand his position as a social-moral agent in leading the people and bringing about harmony in the society by cultivating and instilling the good virtues of humanity, propriety, righteousness, and wisdom in himself and allowing them to guide him and be one with the Tao. 

Philosophy is therefore that which guides an individual in cultivating himself and others through virtues to achieve a desirable end state that will promote harmony in humanity and in the world. In the context of this philosophy, what was forgotten (the Tao) should be remembered, through philosophising, and it is also through the cultivation of the self through the virtues that will align the self again with the Tao and cross out the problems that have caused the absence of social harmony in the society. It is also important to consider that philosophy is not limited to what is stated above. It’s a big world out there and this is only a part of it. However, what is important is that we should understand that Confucius wants us to grow in awareness that the absence of social harmony should be addressed and not by providing band-aid solutions only. What a man should be is the chun-tzu and if he can, the philosopher-king. 

II. Lao Tzu

Desmond (Rosen, 2000) defined Nature as “an organisation of univocal, impersonal forces, not an ambiguous community of personalised powers” and the many chapters of the Tao Te Ching have described Nature as such- that it is not biased and cannot be owned. To fully explain how Nature works can only be so much as it is elusive and at times hard to understand because of its very nature. Man have tried to understand it and having done so, they were able to come up with natural laws and such that have explained, at the very least, parts and pieces of the whole picture. By understanding its qualities, one can somehow create a solid perception of what Nature really is. By differentiating what is natural and otherwise will lead the person to a deeper grasp of its nature. 

One way of doing such is by being aware that opposites are natural. Realising that black implies white, that bad things are necessary and that they happen because they are a part of the whole process are the sure-steps that one can take in becoming aware of what Nature is. They happen because they are meant to do so- they are natural in the whole experience of the human life. By acknowledging these play of opposites, one will realise that the answer to the philosophical problem lies within the problem itself. There is an absence of natural harmony because people have failed to understand Nature itself and so a result, the people began to resist it, control it, and manipulate the world as they see fit. How can one fix a broken fan without understand its parts and pieces and their corresponding functions and such? 

It is also essential that in order for Natural harmony to be achieved one must understand the Tao that which gives birth to the 10,000 things requires a necessary emptiness. Understand how it works and see in the the world. Allow the mind to dig deep into the roots of the Tao and free the thoughts from any form of discrimination. Look at others as if you are looking at the Tao. Speak to others as if you are speaking to Nature. 

What better a man who can achieve natural harmony is one who understands Nature by not trying to understand it? What he should be is a person who does nothing, desires nothing, and knows nothing.  He does not do things carelessly no overdo his work, and most especially he does not attach himself to the fruits of his labor. He avoids the fast life yet he allows Nature to sweep him away. He understands this and so that is why he does not resist and let things fall into place. He desires nothing from this material world and his mind is empty. He simply is simple. His only purpose in life is to live according to Nature and according to the Tao and so, as a result, he is able to realise that natural harmony is what should be in this world. 

Such a man is a Sage. Such a man is one who embraces and accepts emptiness as essential is his life and knows that weakness can be a strength. He is open like a woman and full of unrealised potential like an infant. Translated, he is Tao-like. By philosophising, one can lead to a coherent and pure understanding of Nature. Additionally, he is able to embody the good virtues of the Tao and live out a life that is directed to achieving natural harmony. A person of this character is more than fit to become a ruler but what makes him remarkable is that he has no desire to hold such power and office. The qualities of a King is there in him, intrinsically. Such a person have transcended beyond the desires or even the mere want to have this kind of position in the society that will allow him to rule over others.

Such man is a Sage. A man who is, by all means, humble in his thoughts and ways, simple in his words, and content in his heart. 

What philosophy is therefore a guide for the individual how to co-exist with complete understanding of Nature to achieve a desirable end state which, in this case, natural harmony. The lack of reflection in ones life will cause one to take life for granted and lead a humdrum existence. Understand the self. Know who you truly are. Know that you are like an infant, full of vitality and energy and that you need the Tao to harness this positive potential in you so that you can grow in virtue and learn how live according to the Tao. 

Thus, it is shown that philosophy or Ancient Chinese Philosophy for this matter is all about the cultivation of the self- social and moral improvement for Confucianism and natural for Taoism, as a priming for ruling the state, for sagehood, or for being a philosopher-king. Through the method of cultivation and discipline of the self, these end-goals can become the motivating factors or the avenue to deal with the problem of the absence of social and natural harmony in the society. 

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References:

Brown, D. (Ed.). (2002). Career choice and development. John Wiley & Sons.

Rosen, S. (2000). The Philosopher’s Handbook. New York: Random House, Inc.

Wing, T. C. (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 11.

Nietzsche, F. (1974). The Gay Science. New York: Random House, Inc.

Nadeau, R. L. (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 

哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1D

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

D. in the way he specifies the solution to the philosophical problem?

Chan, 1963 

(Book of History)

“Let the king be serious in what he does. He should not neglect to be serious with virtue.”

Therefore, nurture your values and do not forget it. Govern the state together with your virtues for they will act as your staff as you go along the Path. Govern the state together with your virtues for they will never part with you as long as you keep them close. Your virtues will be crucial in fulfilling your duties and most importantly, they will help you keep your lands secure and they will help you sustain harmony within the community. 

This virtuous man must be a cultivated man- a superior man, a gentleman, a noble man. He should be, by all means, a chun-tzu. And because he is a chun-tzu, he knows how do things rightly. First, he starts with his own self. Nothing should go past him, as he is a superior man he is always careful in his ways inside and the outside his office and inside and outside his own home. He makes sure that names are used correctly in accordance with their purpose for Confucius believes that not being able to correct names and their actualities would lead to social disorder. Confucius also extends this to the ranks and positions of men in the family and in the society.  Violation of this is but a symptom of social disorder. In line with this, the superior man should give great importance to tradition and tradition should be maintained and followed correctly. A superior man, for Confucius, is one who keeps the tradition alive and makes sure that rituals are properly followed. 

Another solution to the problem lies in the faculty of the mind. A superior man must do so well in this area and must have wisdom to be able to discern what is good and what is bad and he should have the wisdom to do good. If born with knowledge, the superior man must seek more and nurture his intelligence and if he is born without, seek it still. By this he is able to slowly develop himself and his character. He should understand and reach for the higher goals and be wary of inferior men. By being aware of such men in the society, he will try to cultivate them as he continues to cultivate his own self. With this, he is not only a man for himself but a man for others as well. 

Upon cultivating himself, Confucius believes that having a heart for others is very important in being able to develop all other virtues. Benevolence is key to the whole process that will end disharmony in the society. Nurturing jen, the superior man should also take not of his relations with his family. A superior man is one who knows how to be filial and knows how to respect his brothers. These two virtues that enters around the family are the roots of humanity. 

The conduct of the superior man, for Confucius, should be that one thread that runs in his doctrines. Altruism and conscientiousness both goes hand in hand and work better together. Through this, the superior man can exercise his humaneness and at the same time, he is able to call others to do the same. His actions should adhere to what is moral. Being righteous means that he should not tolerate any form of injustice. For Confucius and for the superior man, what is ought to be should be. Above all this, he should tread carefully and use only the road that is correct- the Way. 

With this he emerges out and begins another journey. To complete the solution, he will begin by investigation things. In order to learn and to acquire the knowledge that he needs, the superior man should start by investigating things. If he study things by investigation, he will be able to understand and comprehend the matters of the world easily. Next, his will must be sincere. As he is a superior man, he should be able to see things clearly and making his will sincere is but a way to do that. From here on, his mind will also be set rightly and correct. He does not let his happiness and sadness govern him. With a correct mind, his actions will also be correct. 

From cultivating himself, he will begin to cultivate his family. For he is filial and hold high respect for his brothers, he makes sure that they are cultivated rightly towards the Tao. From hereon, the superior man can finally emerge outside the borders of his family to the state. Until he reaches the realm of a Tao-centered philosopher-king where he rules by and with the virtues that he was able to develop. 

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The Chun-tzu as Philosopher-King

二十二

~What is a philosopher-king (or sage-emperor)?

~What role does the ruler play in a state?

~Why does Confucius argue that the ruler must be a chun-tzu? What is the difference between the ruler who is a chun-tzu and one who is not?

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Fung, 1947

“The man who has become really and truly a jen man is the sage, and the same is one body with Heaven and Earth and all things…”

The highest position that one can achieve in the society, according to Fung Yu-Lan (1947), is that of a political leader. What’s even more higher than that is other than being a statesman, he is also a sage— a person, as the parent of the people, who rules with the virtue and wisdom of a sage and who has the power and will of a king: …for in the Confucian system, the sage should be a ruler and the ruler should be a sage (Chan, 1963, p. 45).  He is one who gives his all to secure the land and its inhabitants while at the same time maintaining peace throughout the society. He does not neglect their needs and does well in educating them while keeping himself in check knowing that he is the role model of the people. 

Analects 16:8

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man stands in awe of three things. He stands in awe of the Mandate of Heaven; he stands in awe of great men; and he stands in awe of the words of the sages. The inferior man is ignorant of the Mandate of Heaven and does not stand in awe of it. He is disrespectful to great men and is contemptuous toward the words of the sages.’”

Analects 16:8 does not only describe the qualities of a sage-king but also defines him by comparing him to the inferior man who does not clearly have the qualifications of a superior man and a ruler. The principle of “sageliness within and kingliness without” is deeply tied in the Confucian teachings when one talks about the exemplary man. This principle is the very essence, however entered entirely on the chun-tzu, of a perfect government with a perfect ruler, a sage yet an emperor, and the perfect people who are loyal and respectful: …in his inner sageliness, he accomplishes spiritual cultivation; in his kingliness without, he functions in society. It is not necessary that the sage should be the actual head of the government… The [principle] means only that he who has the noblest spirit should, theoretically, be a king. As to whether he actually has or has not the chance of being king, that is immaterial (Fung, 1948, p. 8). Since the ruler is the model of the people, it is very important that he should have the virtues and the characteristics of a superior man. He adheres to the Tao and maintains the Confucian virtue of righteousness, filial piety, benevolence, etc. Such virtuous ruler would automatically win the hearts of the people and they will also be inspired to follow his way. 

If man can be perfected, then the state, by man’s desire, can also be perfected. A strong-willed ruler who sets his mind on the Way and embodies the Confucian virtue would be an ideal parent of the state. A cultivated ruler would cause a domino effect, influencing and inspiring the people with his goodness and in return he receives the blessings of Heaven. 

Chan, 1963

(The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu)

"In tranquility he becomes a sage, and in activity he becomes a king."

“The admirable, amiable prince [Shun] displayed conspicuously his excellent virtue. He put his people and his officers in concord. And he received his emolument from Heaven. It protected him, assisted him, and appointed him king. And Heaven’s blessing came again and again.”

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哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1D

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

D. in the way he lays out the steps of self-cultivation?

The elevation of man, for Confucius is approached with a process. A process that, when achieved, justifies the footing of man in the society. In The Great Learning, Confucius revealed the steps for the self-cultivation of man that starts with the individual himself and ends in the expanse of the world—when things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will is sincere, the mind is rectified; when the mind is rectified, the personal life is cultivated; when the personal life is cultivated, the family will be regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order; and when the state is in order, there will be peace throughout the world (Chan, 1963, p. 86-87). Confucius deemed that the cultivation of man is important. A man without character and virtue and does not strive to “renovate” himself is not a superior man. 

The first step, for Confucius, lies in the investigation of things. Failure to do so would prevent one form extending his knowledge and in turn prevents him from ever becoming a worthy man. In order to fully cultivate oneself, Confucius puts forwards that, before anythings else, things must be investigated. When things are investigated, one will know and understand the principle of things and the nature of things. Investigation of things pushes one to fully understand his function in society and how he should live his life. Investigation of things would allow man to discover the meaning of life and it will make him understand why he should strive to become a superior man. Man’s knowledge, according to Chu Hsi, is imperfect because man had failed to investigate things.

Next comes the extension of knowledge or learning. Confucius deemed that knowing the Tao is in itself learning. For him, learning is a value and should not be acquired for reasons of selfishness. Interest in the arts and literature expresses learning and he who uses his education as his foundation in making his life morally good is the right way to go. For Confucius, learning also means that if one makes a mistake, he should act upon it to correct and learn from the mistake that he made. He knows where he stand and does not act as if he knows any better when in fact he does not. Learning, for Confucius, is not without thinking and because he is thinking, he is careful in his speech and he is careful in following the Way and the rules of propriety. He learns for the sake of learning and for the sake of humanity. 

Making the will sincere follows next after things have been investigated and knowledge has been extended. The Great Learning provided making the will sincere means that one should not allow self-deception. Even in the confines of his own private quarters, the superior man should take great care of his thoughts, words, and deeds. A man with a sincere will is a genuine man who serves his purpose for the benefit of his family and for the benefit of his neighbours. By making his will sincere, the man, for Confucius, would allow him to maintain a pure heart that will show externally. For the Master, sincerity also manifests itself in the actions of the superior man and is one of the many steps in self-cultivation.

Lastly, when things have been investigated, when knowledge has been extended, and the will made sincere, the mind needs to be rectified for the completion of man’s self-cultivation. For Confucius, the mind need to be correct at all cost. He should not let fear or anger get the best of him and ruin his character as a superior man. To discipline his thoughts and his actions, the superior man must do so by rectifying his mind and keeping it control without letting him emotions get the best of him. He should not dwell in negativity and drown himself in extreme positivity. The cultivation of the person lies in being able to achieve a correct mind— a mind that has fully investigated things and have acquired knowledge, a will that is sincere and a mind that is rectified. For Confucius, a man with a rectified mind will do so well in making decisions, may he be a common man or a ruler. He strives to put things correctly where they are and makes sure that everything is in accordance to harmony. Having a rectified mind is having a moral mind. 

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Regulation by Virtue, Not Law or Force

二十一

~What does Confucius mean by regulation of the state by means of virtue? How is such a state regulated?

~What is the difference between regulation through virtue and regulation through either law or force? Why does he insist on the use of virtue, not law or force?

*****

Yao, 2000

The goal [of order and peace] cannot be achieved by arms, nor by power or law, but only by moral strength and moral virtues.”

Man is born with uprightness. Indeed, it is so but being born with such uprightness does not guarantee the agent will die with uprightness just as he was born with it. As man’s nature is good and upright, he has the capacity to be virtuous and remain virtuous in the entire course of his life. Why virtue? Why is it important?

The Confucian tradition emphasises the Way- the moral way. The teachings of the Master is governed by virtues, virtues that help cultivate a man into a superior man and make him into a man worthy of governing a state. These [Confucian] virtues allow man to develop himself into a superior man. Why? Because virtues are right. Right in the sense that they are correct, proper, and they are the central point of values. Vices, as opposed to virtue, is taken as an excess or the lack of virtues. 

de Bary, 2009

“…virtue (te) is a traditional concept for qualities that manifest themselves in benefits to others, but the effect on others most crucial for Confucius is the appeal to their self-respect rather than to fear…”

There is a black and white distinction between Confucius’ regulation by virtue and the Legalists’ concept of virtue. For the latter, the concept of virtue in its true sense is denied and it is instead equated with the concept of reward/reinforcement-punishment system (Operant Conditioning, Skinner) or “the two handles of the ruler”: rewards are there for those who obey the law and punishments are to be imposed on those who violate others (Chan, 1948, p. 225) and where law and statecraft are of utmost importance to the ruler. The Legalists’ view Confucianism as idealistic, “bookish and impractical” in its political views and ideas. Confucius, on the other hand, places the importance of virtue in its true sense (Chan, 1963) and that the masses should be governed by li and morality and frowns upon the Legalists’ realistic views, accusing them as “mean and vulgar” (Fung,1948).

Redse, 2015

“Confucius preferred personally performed ritual actions in accordance with the basic virtues, regulated by a need for “face" (dignity) and harmony, rather than the application of fixed laws with penal regulations and punishments. For this reason he was concerned with cultivating a sense of shame awareness in people as a control power, rather than recommending control by means of penal regulations… (Analects 2:3)”

The Great Learning stressed on the need to regulate the family before being able to successfully regulate the state. As the family is the foundation of a community, regulating it would entail the extension of a regulated state. The virtue of the ruler must centre itself on filial piety and the relationship between the ruler and his subordinates. A ruler should love his people and be sensitive towards their needs: If he has virtue, he will have the people with him… Virtue is the root, while wealth is the branch (The Great Learning, 10). A ruler with a virtue is not one who indulges himself in luxury while his people are suffering. He is not one who exploits the fruits of his people’s labor for his own selfish desires. On the other hand, one who makes sure that his people have enough food to eat, does not impose heavy labor among the workers of the society, and ensures that there is security and peace throughout the land a virtuous ruler worthy of his position to govern. However, Zhang (2000), noted another importance in the system: education. A ruler must also concern himself with the education of the people— first is to establish social moralities that guide mass conduct, and second is to check the evildoings and reduce penalties.  

Doctrine of the Mean, 20

…When the right principles of man operate, the growth of good government is rapid, and when the right principles of soil operate, the growth of vegetables is rapid… Therefore the conduct of government depends upon the men. The right men are obtained by the ruler’s personal character. The cultivation of the person is to be done through the Way, and the cultivation of the Way is to be done through humanity…”

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The State as a Big Family

二十

~What is the extent of the state for Confucius? What is its difference from the family?

~Why does Confucius consider the state as a big family? What elements of the family must the state imitate?

~What does Confucius mean when he considers the ruler as the parent of the people? In what ways is the ruler like the parent in a family?

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In the previous entry, The Family as the Basic Social Unit, the family was introduced in a broad sense that it included with it the state with the ruler as the father of the people and that the state was designed in a way that it reflects the “nation-family” form of government. The chapter nine of The Great Learning opened with the idea that the need to regulate the family is a first before being able to govern the state. That is, and asking the question of, “how can one govern or rule a state when he cannot even supervise the affairs of his family?”: 

“There is no one who cannot teach his own family and yet can teach others. Therefore the superior man (ruler) without going beyond his family, can bring education into the completion in the whole state.”

Having said this, now that the superior man has finally cultivated himself and in turn was able to regulate his own family, we now turn into the outside layer: the state or the family state. To be a ruler means to govern but that is only one side of the coin. To be a ruler means that one should also be of service to his people, equally. The Great Learning emphasises the qualities of what it takes to be a ruler— of how it is to become a parent of the people. Like a family, a ruler should know how to treat the elders with respect and treat the youth and those without means in a good and right manner. As he is the parent of the people, he then becomes the role model of his people. If his conduct towards the young and the old are right, then the people shall too.

Analect 13:6

“Confucius said, ‘If a ruler sets himself right, he will be followed without his command. If he does not set himself right, even his commands will not be obeyed.’”

A good ruler is also one who is perfectly in tune with his people. Just as a father who knows when his son is happy or sad, a ruler should also know his people in this sense. Knowing the right time to intervene when your child is in trouble and knowing when to just stand on the sidelines while still supporting him defines a good parent who knows his child. Knowing your people will help you in making the right decision in terms of what is good for them and what is not, understood already that the ruler is a superior man. If such bad things within the state already exist, the ruler should do well in either eliminating or correcting them. He should be sensitive to the needs of his people and rules with the virtue that to govern is to rectify (Analect 12:17). Such superior ruler will, in turn, earn the support and love of his people wholeheartedly. 

Schuman, 2015

“In Confucian thinking, then, the state became an enlarged photocopy of the family. If the state operated the same was a family did, good government would be achieved and order maintained in society. The Great Learning…states simply that “from the loving example of one family a whole state becomes loving.” At the top of the family stood a commanding yet benevolent father, controlling yet caring for his children; at the top of the nation stood the emperor, enjoying unrivalled authority over the people, yet committed to serving the best interests of the common man…”

The chapter ten of The Great Learning greatly expounds on the ideal characteristic of a superior man as the ruler of the state. As a ruler is the model of everyone, he should do good deeds behind and outside doors. As he both a superior man and a ruler, he takes care of his own attitude and knows that Heaven will do justice to him if he is unjust. He is one who brings and keep justice and peace throughout the community (Analect 14:45) and worries when security and peace are lacking:

Analect 16:1

“Confucius said, ‘…I have heard that those who administer a state or a family do not work about there being too few people, but worry about unequal distribution of wealth. They do not worry about poverty, but worry about the lack of security and peace on the part of the people. For when wealth is equally distributed, there will not be poverty; when there is harmony, there will be no problem of there being too few people; and when there are security and peace, there will be no danger to the state…’”

*****

P.S. -I think this is interesting but it is beyond me: https://fractalontology.wordpress.com/2008/10/09/family-contra-the-state-problematizing-aristotle-and-confucius/

The Family as the Basic Social Unit

十九

~What is the extent of the family that Confucius considers as the basic social unit? What are the basic relations within this family?

~Why does Confucius consider the family as the basic social unit within which the chun-tzu must begin to operate?

~What role must the chun-tzu play within the family? How will the chun-tzu play his role within the family? What must the chun-tzu aim for as he operates within the family?

*****

The Godfather, Mario Puzo

“…and if I ever need any guidance, who’s a better consiglieri than my father?”

The superior man, who have finally cultivated himself through investigating things, therefore extending his knowledge, making his will sincere, and rectification of his knowledge can now finally move on to the next step: his family. A family, in the Confucian teachings, is considered as the basic and primary unit of society. It is where a child grows up to a man, and finally to a superior man and so on and so forth for his sons and their sons and to the rest of the future generation. The family is where all relationship starts and thus, a son’s relationship with his family is but fundamental. This, in turn, points out that filial piety is considered as one of the important virtues in the Confucian teachings. 

Introduction to Confucian Thought, n.d.

“In traditional China it was assumed by adherents of all schools of thought that government would be monarchical and that the state had its model in the family. The ruler was understood to be at once the Son of Heaven, and the father of the people, ruling under the Mandate of Heaven… Even today, under a different radically form of government, the Chinese term for state is “guo-jia” or “nation-family”, suggesting the survival of the idea of this paternal and consensual relationship…”

Love, sensitivity and consideration for each other, and respect are the conditions to establish a good Confucian family. Father and son should have a loving and reverential relationship with one another. Elder brother and younger brother should treat each other with gentleness and respect. The relationship between a husband and a wife should be good and attentive. A friend to a friend should be humble in all sense and from a ruler to a subject, a relationship where one puts great importance to loyalty is how to make it (“Oriental Philosophy: Main Concepts of Confucianism,” n.d.). The threefold relationship between father and son, husband and wife, brother and brother are genuine in its “familial” sense but the two, ruler and subject and friend and friend, can however be enclosed in the scope (Fung, 1948). When a father is a cultivated man, his son should follow his way. He must be respectful to him and do well in honouring him even until after his death. This kind of dedication to his family is what will make him a cultivated man like his father.

Doctrine of the Mean, 19

“Men of filial piety are those who skilfully carry out the wishes of their forefathers and skilfully carry forwards their undertakings.”

The Great Learning, 8

“Hence it is said, “People do not know the faults of their sons and do not know the bigness of their seedlings.” This is what is meant by saying that if the personal life is not cultivated, one cannot regulate his family.”

The disposition of the family is therefore dependent on the character of the people that makes up that family. If the son is brought up well in a family of superior character, then this trait will show once he becomes a man himself. By being a cultivated person, he in turn will bring this to the society and until he has a family of his own. But if a son grows up in a family with an inferior man for a father, then what goodness can he pass down to the society and his sons? A superior man rectifies the ways of his sons when he is not in accordance with what is moral and what is proper and right in line with the views of the society: “Our family relationship is projected into the life of the community and the world” (Zukeran, 2001). Keeping the family away from shame is also a way to regulate the family. 

Yao, 2000

“As the family is the basic unit of human community, harmonious family relationships are believed to be crucial for a harmonious society and a peaceful state… For those who are of the ruling class, their virtues in family affairs are even more significant, because it is believed that when these people feel profound affection for their parents, the common people will naturally be humane…”

*****

Rectification of the Mind

十八

~What does Confucius mean by the rectification of names? What is the scope of his rectification? How is this rectification to be accomplished?

~Why is the rectification of names the last step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

*****

Chang, 2013

“Rectify whatever there is to be rectified about the things, search your own mind, and trust your own intuition which is good by nature.”

In Manuel Dy’s The Confucian Jen, he provided the sequence for the development of the superior man (the eight steps in The Great Learning): when things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will becomes sincere, the mind is rectified; when the personal life is cultivated, the family is regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order; and when the state is in order, there will be peace throughout the world. Therefore, in order to become a superior man or a jen man, he must start with himself and he must start it correctly. He should investigate things, seek for and gain the knowledge, do well in making his will sincere, and rectify his mind. By doing so, he cultivates himself and when cultivated, he helps his family, his state, and the world. The four steps for the development of the superior man must be accomplished before he can fully cultivate himself. 

A person with a rectified mind will not so easily be swayed. The human mind, taking the definition of Tucker (1989), refers to the physical form of the senses responding to what they desire. An untamed mind is often equated to a wild horse- where one’s senses go on a rampage, driving the mind in a chaotic state and making it lose all its control over the body, the heart, and the mind. An untamed mind will but generate bad decisions and bad actions that in turn result in a bad outcome. The mind becomes irrational and illogical. To avoid such mishap, one must rectify his mind so as to correct his ways and his thoughts. The same thing also goes to a person with an unbalanced way of thinking. Dwelling only in negative thoughts would inevitably sour the mood of the person and this in turn will make him ill towards others. Too much confidence in the mind will also cause one to overlook things and his carelessness will result in his own downfall. Chapter 7 of The Great Learning have also described a person’s uncertified state of mind. 

de Bary, 2013

Zhen Zhangfang, Essay on the Learning of the Emperors

“What is called ‘cultivation of the person’ lies in rectifying one’s mind.’ If the person is moved by passion, he will not achieve correctness; if he is moved by fondness for something, he will not achieve correctness; if he is moved by sorrow and distress, he will not achieve correctness.”

Chang, 2013

“So, we as human beings have to be sincere and moving. Where are we moving to? To a better status, to make ourselves better human beings. In others words, we must give our mind a new direction; we must rectify our mind.”

Zheng Shen, one of Confucius’ disciples, found that in order for one to put his mind to a good use, all he needs to do is to rectify it, “four emotions usually exercise bad influences on the mind: anger, fear, exhilaration, and worry. The way to ‘rectify’ one’s mind is to get rid of these four emotions” (Chang, 2013). Chen Te-hsiu, a major Neo-Confucian scholar and an official in the late Sung dynasty, also echoed the same thoughts regarding the rectification of the mind. He strongly believes that correcting the mind is the very foundation of self-cultivation, which is  the basis for moral rulership (Taylor & Choy, 2005). With a rectified mind, one can do well in discerning his thoughts from right and wrong. One can discipline his thoughts and his actions. He does not put on airs and walks the talk. A rectified mind also takes note with names and their actualities. As he is a careful man, he makes sure that names are in accordance with their purpose and strives hard to correct and do something about the ranks, duties, and functions that are out of place. If we allow our mind to do as it please, then all will end in disharmony. Our mind lies in the “control room” of our physical body. Regulating our desires and keeping our emotions from bursting out is a good way keeping ourselves from falling all over the place or from straying away from the path. Allowing our desire for material things is also not the way to go. If we keep our senses and our thoughts in check and not allow one to dominate over the rest is a way to rectify the mind. 

Tucker, 1989

“…if we want to rectify the mind-and-heart, we must first make our will sincere. If we are already sincere in loving good and disliking evil, rectifying the mind-and-heart should be easy. Rectification means that the seven emotions of happiness, anger, sadness, enjoyment, love, hate, and desire which arise in the mind-and-heart are in correct measure with neither excess of deficiency. This means being happy when we should be happy, but not being excessive in that happiness; being angry when we should be angry,but not being excessive in anger. Other emotions should also be expressed in a similar manner. If the seven emotions are balanced with either excess nor deficiency, we will not be swayed within the heart and there will always be harmony. This is rectifying the mind-and-heart.”

As the mind is the very foundation of the self (Dietz, 2010), rectification of the mind would mean cleansing away prejudices, false orientations, and wrong perceptions of the self. Cleansing the thoughts of such things, we can see things more clearly- we can see them as they are and with this, our actions will be in accordance to harmony and how we associate with others would be correct. And because prior to this that we have already investigated things, extended our knowledge, and made our wills sincere, we can correct our minds with full knowledge of doing so, correctly and sincerely. 

Dietz, 2010

“…With a rectified mind, superior people cultivate every aspect of their lives to better honour and benefit all things. Superior people use the self to protect and manifest their understanding. Superior people do not live carelessly. They live to nourish their mind and to act to the great benefit of the world…”

Chang, 2013

Wang Shou-ren: [the mind] can also be “reason itself". He believed that no reason existed outside the mind; and no thing existed outside the mind. The mind is reason because it knows how to arrange things. The mind is also virtue, because it has compassion (ren) and the ability to distinguish right from wrong. All a man needs to do, in order to find a right answer to a question, is to search his own mind…

*****

Making the Will Sincere

十七

~What does Confucius mean by making the will sincere? How does one make the will sincere? How does one know that the will is already sincere?

~Why is the task of making the will sincere the third step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

*****

Chang, 2013

“A Confucianist starts his moral self-cultivation with sincerity. His teacher tells him to be sincere first. Without sincerity, nothing can happen to him.”

“Have a sincere will!” his teacher orders him. “With a sincere will, you may have your mind rectified, oriented to the right direction.”

Sincerity, according to the Oxford dictionary, is taken as an emotion that is free from pretences or deceit. The Great Learning (ch.6) defined “making the will sincere” as allowing no self-deception.  Sincerity has always been vital for maintaining a genuine relationship with one’s friends, family, and acquaintances. Oftentimes, this deceit is not only directed to others but also to ourselves. Making the will sincere is not only limited to human relations. It can extend to one’s actions and how one goes about his everyday life. One may only be a simple baker but if he is sincere in his work and does it well with dedication, then there is genuineness in his efforts and actions. His actions of sincerity must be consistent: whether in dealing with a patron or a rich customer to his regular ones and behind closed doors. For this kind of man, success is waiting for him. The Filipino sense of “pakikipagkapwa” connotes a positive attitude towards others but the sincerity of that pakikipagkapwa must always be checked. Is our being sincere in its purest sense? Or is there any underlying motive behind our supposed to be sincere actions?

Chan, 1963

“Sincerity is not just a state of mind, but an active force that is always transforming things and completing things, and drawing man and Heaven together in the same current… If sincerity is to be true, it must involve strenuous effort at learning and earnest effort at practice… Sincerity is to be tested in ordinary words and ordinary deeds and its truth is understandable to the ordinary man.”

Berthrong & Berthrong, 2014

“Only with a sincere will focused on a reverence for the Way of the sages and worthies could the student make progress in self-cultivation.”

Sincerity comes in when one would begin to extend his knowledge. By doing so, he should start by investigating things. Now that things have been investigated, his knowledge has become extensive, making his thoughts sincere. Additionally, he who desires to correct and rectify his mind must first take a step to make his will sincere (Chan, 1963). To show one’s sincerity, correcting and refining one’s speech is a step. By doing this, one will not develop the habit of lying. 

Chang, 2013

“To improve one’s personality, three things must be done: enthusiastic learning, vigorous action, and avoidance of shame. These three things can only be done with a sincere will. When they are done, one is near to the three principal virtues in the world: wisdom, jen, and courage.”

Characteristic to the superior man is that he establishes himself and also wishes to establishes others (Analect 6:28). The same is true in sincerity. By being sincere, one will cause the things around him to go and mature (Chang, 2013). A person of sincere will, devoid of any pretence, will know how to examine himself without bias. Sincerity also has something to do with goodness and enlightenment. As we are born good, it would do well if we can retain that goodness in us as we grow, by doing so, one also keeps the virtue of sincerity by his side. Making the will sincere has something to do with dedication. Confucius always iterates that one needs to “set his will on the way”. One can do so by accepting and practicing the virtues of righteousness, benevolence, propriety, etc. When these actions of righteousness and benevolence are done with sincerity, then it is the Way.  

Chang, 2013

Doctrine of the Mean (20-25)

“Sincerity is Heaven’s way; to be sincere is man’s way… A sincere man sees things clearly. Conversely, when a man can see things clearly, he will want to be sincere without being told so… Sincerity is the beginning and the end of all things… A sincere man knows what has happened and what is going to happen… He can grasp what is important in the world and deal with its crucial problems… A great man is a sincere man… A sage is a man whose sincerity has reached a height as to be able to transform the world.”

*****

Investigation of Things

十五

~What does Confucius mean by the investigation of things? What is the scope of the investigation? How are the things to be investigated?

~Why is the investigation of things the first step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

*****

ko-wu

Hoobler & Hoobler, 2009 

(as cited in Creel’s Chinese Thought: From Confucius to Mao)

“…The reason we cannot be sages or worthy men is that we lack the great strength that is needed for the investigation of things.”

“Knowing” something is never truly enough and the same goes for being able to understand only what is on the surface or getting the gist or the general idea of a certain subject matter. Regarding this as knowledge is the same as accepting what is not true, for this kind of knowledge is not only lacking but also empty. A superior man is one who is unsatisfied with such because for as long as things are not properly investigated, then knowledge will be, as a result, incomplete. Zhu Xi, a Confucian scholar from the Song Dynasty, believes that the investigation of things serves as the very foundation of true knowledge which acts as a support and a motivating factor for self-cultivation. For him, the investigation of things can also mean as the investigation of moral knowledge. According to him, “…we should apply ourselves to [the study of] things so as to gain an exhaustive knowledge of their Li,” or in other words, one should investigate things to discern their defining patterns.

Analect 19:7

“Tsze-hsia said, ‘Mechanics have their shops to dwell in, in order to accomplish their works. The superior man learns, in order to reach to the utmost of his principles.’”

The expansion of knowledge for self-cultivation can also be achieved through the investigation of things. Just as life is a process and just as there is a due process for accomplishing any kind of task, so does when one aspires to go beyond than being just a man or the kind of man that he is at present. Therefore, what constitutes a superior man is his inclination to know the root and his desire to perfect his knowledge. The investigation of things also demands one to admit his foolishness or his ignorance when he is lacking.

Analect 2:17

“Confucius said, ‘Yu, shall I teach you [the way to acquire] new knowledge? To say that you know and say that you do not know when you do not know- that is [the way to acquire] knowledge.’”

Taylor & Choy, 2005

“Investigation of Things is predicated for the School of Principle of the belief that all things possess principle (li). In turn it is the goal of humankind to come to a complete understanding of the nature of Principle, a state that is characterised as sagehood.”

But how does one perfect his knowledge? To this, The Great Learning acts as a guide, a moral guide, for one to cultivate his character into that of a superior man: extension of knowledge consists of the investigation of things… From the king down to the common people, all must regard  the cultivation of the self as the most essential thing. Through learning or investigation of things, one will surely arrive at the core of it all— the principle of things. The importance of being able to understand the principle of things will allow one to fully comprehend how the world works thus, his actions will be in accordance to what should be done and how he will properly perform the act. Therefore, knowing must answer the questions of why, how, and what for. By fulfilling these, one can arrive in the knowledge as how he should exercise it- action. That is to say:

Analect 7:3

“The Master said, ‘the leaving virtue without proper cultivation; the not thoroughly discussing what is learning; not being able to move towards righteousness of which a knowledge is gained; and not being able to change what is not good—these are the things that make me uncomfortable.’”

A superior man with an intelligent mind soaks himself with knowledge that allows his to know what is good and what is right at all occasions, even in moments of haste. Reaching the summit of our knowledge is through the investigation of things. One can know what is right and what is wrong through investigating it. One can know the proper method of doing an activity through investigating it. One can know how to do a ritual properly by investigating how to do it and why it is done as such. Being a learned person makes one a superior man. 

If one studies a number of subjects, he broadens the scope of his mind and his imagination. By studying the arts, he will become well-versed in that area. By studying medicine he will be able to understand the frailty and mortality of man. By studying the things around him, he will understand the world external to him. By studying history and politics he will understand the course of human society and of how it is and should be governed. One should not confine himself only to one subject. Through broadening one’s interest and learning with enthusiasm about the great things about him, he inflates himself— he becomes a bigger man. 

Chai & Chai, 1973

…the extension of knowledge is “knowing the utmost” and “reaching it”. It is extending the intuitive knowledge of our mind…

…”the extension of intuitive knowledge” as not “something illusory, hazy, in a vacuum [devoid of Li], and unreal”; it is rather “something real.”

The Great Learning, 5

Extension of knowledge consists of the investigation of things.

When things are investigated, knowledge is extended.

When knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere.

When the will is sincere, the mind is correct.

When the mind is correct, the self is cultivated.

When the self is cultivated, the clan is harmonised. 

When the clan is harmonised, the country is well governed.

When the country is well governed, there will be peace throughout the land.

*****

Chih as a Cardinal Virtue

十四

~What does Confucius mean by chih (wisdom)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of chih?

~Why does Confucius identify chih as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~How is this virtue related to jen, yi, and li?

*****

Analect 2:17

“Confucius said, ‘Yu, shall I teach you [the way to acquire] knowledge? To say that you know when you do know and say that you do not know when you do not know- that is [the way to acquire] knowledge.’”

Chih, for Confucius, is moral wisdom. It is the ability to discern the right from wrong and the good from bad. Chih, however innate (Mencius and Confucius), puts an emphasis on it as a process of experiencing where once is involved in the act of knowing. It is also a partial fulfilment for being a gentleman. It helps one realise what it means to be a gentleman. Chih entails both learning and thinking. It describes one who engages critical thinking and reflecting so as to filter and know the information that he is gaining. 

Bell, 2010

“…Moral wisdom is important in Confucianism, but it is not as important as the ideal of a gentleman. A gentleman is a person who who possesses the ideal virtue of jen (benevolence), which is an all-encompassing virtue, including others like wisdom, respect, faith,… etc. And the essence of this ideal virtue is benevolence or love for fellow humans…”

People tend to rush into things whether it be by their actions of by their words. More often than not, we can sometimes hear others saying that there are instances of action without thought or speaking without thinking which eventually leads them in tight situations. This is the kind of behaviour that we must unlearn. We must also avoid being like a sponge where we absorb everything. Being a filter is better. 

Analect 7:27

“Confucius said, ‘There are those who act without knowing [what is right]. But I am not one of them. To hear much and select what is good and follow it, to see much and remember it, it the second type of knowledge.”

Analect 6:18

“Confucius said, ‘To know it [learning or the Way] is not as good as to live it, and to love it is not as good as to take delight in it.’”

Fung (1947) settled chih as the foundation for one to be able to understand human-heartedness, righteousness, and propriety- a man must have an understanding of jen before he can do jen acts (p.18). In chih’s relation to jen, yi, and li, Fung furthered his discussion by going back to Analect 2:4: …wisdom was understanding in relation to jen, yi, and li… being able to follow rituals would mean that one is right but this is not to say that one is doing the act rightly. One must be able to understand to be able to have a perfect understanding of human-heartedness or righteousness. With wisdom, one ceases to objectify oneself. Acting out jen, yi, and li without chih is empty and meaningless.

Doctrine of the Mean 20

“Some are born with knowledge. Some learn it through study. Some learn it through hard work. But when the knowledge is acquired, it comes to the same thing. Some practice them natural and easily. Some practice them for their advantage. Some practice them with effort and difficulty. But when the achievement is made, it comes to the same thing.”

“Confucius said, ‘Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with visor is akin to humanity, To know to be shameful is akin to courage. He who knows these three things knows how to cultivate his personal life. Knowing how to cultivate his personal life, he knows how to govern other man. And knowing how to govern other men, he knows how to govern the empire, its states, and the families.’”

Confucius went beyond the common meaning of learning. For him, learning is learning the Tao. Learning in the prior would only mean as the expansion of knowledge while the latter would want one to be self-realised. Wisdom or knowledge alone is useless and the same goes for learning without doing without understand what or why are you doing such. For those who are quick to learn may be at an advantage but it they fail to cultivate or use it for humanity then their actions may be deemed as not remarkable. For those who are slow to learn will do so at their own pace and seek the virtue of meekness for them to be able to learn. What it is importance is that one should make use of his wisdom in good relation to those around him- …the man of wisdom cultivates humanity for its advantage (Analect 1:16).

Analect 6:20

“Fan Ch’ih asked about wisdom. Confucius said, ‘Devote yourself earnestly to the duties due to men, and respect spiritual beings (especially ancestors) but keep them at a distance. This may be called wisdom…’”

*****

Li as a Cardinal Virtue

十三

~What does Confucius mean by li (propriety)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of li?

~Why does Confucius identify li as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~How is this virtue related to jen and yi?

*****

Analect 10:9

“When his mat was not straight [Confucius] did not sit on it.”

Such is the importance of li or propriety for Confucius that even in the littlest of things, we would insist on the correctness of his actions and of the things around him. Similar to most of Confucius’ virtues, li can mean more than a thing or two. As li’s numerous definitions are tangled in a web together, so does its expanse in the individual and social context. While the li here is taken as propriety, it can also mean ritual action or morals. Li requires one’s active participation for it to be expressed as the activities [rituals] greatly correspond to the promotion of jen. Like the Tao, li teaches one the principles of how to live. If li is followed then the whole of society will work smoothly. 

Analect 1:12

“Yu Tzu said, ‘Among the functions of li the most valuable is that it establishes harmony. The excellence of the ways of ancient kings consists of this. It is the guiding principle of all things great and small. If things go amiss, and you, understanding harmony, try to achieve it without regulating it by the rules of propriety, they will still go amiss.’”

The way to achieve harmony in the society and jen is through going back to li. Constantly, is what Confucius said (Analect 12:1). Sprunger described li as the gentleman’s external expression and jen as what is inside. Thus, if li and jen are both embodied within a person, then he is the end goal of the whole Confucian philosophy: he is a chun tzu (An Introduction to Confucianism, n.d.). Li prescribes the proper etiquettes under any event to a man from the properties of a ceremony (Analect 3:4) to how a ruler and a minister should act and serve (Analect 3:19). It also dictates how filial piety is to be expressed (Analect 2:5), how mournings and sacrifices to one’s ancestors should be done, and how one should conduct himself in a convention. Li is also important in the development of a gentleman. Social harmony can be established as li promotes ethics and proper decorum. Even if it limits one’s actions, it keeps the person in line and guides him how to act rightly so as to avoid disharmony: the noble man who studies culture extensively, and disciplines himself with propriety can keep from error (Analect 6:27).  

Fung, 1976 

(Hsun Tzu)

“…But the world is not so ideal. People must live together, and in order to do so without contention, a millet must be imposed on everyone in the satisfaction of his desires. The function of li is to set this limit. When there are the lu, there is morality. He who acts according to the li acts morally. He who acts against them acts immorally.”

(Confucianism)

“…li is a very comprehensive idea. It can be translates as ceremonies, rituals, or rules of social conduct… The function of li is to regulate. The li provide regulation for the satisfaction of man’s desires. But in the sense of ceremonies and rituals, the lie have another function, that of refining. In this sense, the li give refinement and purification to man’s emotions…”

Acting righteously also denotes that one is acting in accordance to the morals and the societal laws for laws are made to keep peace and eliminate disorder in the society: without propriety and righteousness, there will be rebellion, disorder, and chaos… The sage-kings of antiquity created the rules of propriety and righteousness and instituted laws and systems in order to correct man’s feelings, transform them, and direct them so that they all may become disciplined and conform with the Way (Chan, 1963). 

By following propriety and righteousness, one will grow up straightly and correctly. Such a man will never be swayed. Confucius would bid one to avoid what is opposed to propriety, to turn a deaf ear towards what is contrary to propriety, to speak what is contrary to propriety, and not to make any actions that are opposed to propriety (Analect 12:1). 

Analect 20:3

“Without an acquaintance of the rules of propriety, it is impossible for the character to be established.”

Further in Chan’s A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, he stressed that both righteousness and propriety are attained through hard work. He also extended that since both virtues are not nature to man, they should be sought out just as how one would seek the way on how to be a true gentleman. Like jen, propriety makes the extension from one person to another. Entwining both main virtues together would create a cultivated man with a good moral bone. Li is also a guide as to how one should associate with another by observing good manners and right conduct, one can avoid conflict that may have a tendency to grow bigger. 

Analect 15:32

“Confucius said, ‘When a man’s knowledge is sufficient for him to attain [his position] but his humanity is not sufficient for him to hold it, he will lose it again. When his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it and his humanity is sufficient for him to hold it , if he does not approach the people with dignity, the people will now respect him. If his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it, his humanity sufficient for him to hold it, and he approaches the people with dignity, ye does not influence them with the principle of propriety,it is still not good.”

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