Ancient Chinese Philosophy Final Synthesis Paper

Ancient Chinese Philosophy Final Synthesis Paper

I. Confucius

According to Brown (2002), values are “core beliefs that individuals experience as standards that guide how they ‘should’ function in order to attain a desired end state” and so a great deal of importance is stressed on the significance of values and virtues in the discipline of Chinese philosophy, may it be in the philosophy of Confucius or Lao Tzu. In order for man to be able to live according to the Way, he must live rightly and by this, the way is for him to achieve the end goal of both schools of philosophy by cultivating himself through virtues. The role of virtues in the development of man is to aid him attain social harmony and become the desirable end goal- the sage worthy of being a philosopher-king. 

Now, we are presented with the philosophical problem- the Way has not prevailed for a long time. And this Way is the Great Way, the Tao, and because is has not prevailed for a long time, there is the absence of social harmony. The people of Ancient China had not been living their lives according to the Way. The Tao is lost and with it came all sorts of problem that have disrupted social harmony in the community and in the state. People have forgotten the right way to live- people have forgotten how to live according to the Tao. People are no longer cultivated and so they are no longer living in virtue, their values are but lost to them. The loss of virtues in the lives of the many have led them to an incorrect life and from this, mistakes begot mistakes. So Confucius presented philosophy as the guiding light back to the Tao and back to a life lived in virtues. 

The loss of virtues in the lives of the many have led them to live carelessly and take things for granted and so people no longer care if names did not match according to their actualities nor if a guard becomes a minister. The non-correspondence of names toward their given actualities became the root cause of social disorder and because the people had been negligent in their ways and have forgotten the Tao, their awareness on this matter is lost to them. 

In order to correct this problem and provide a solution for social disorder, Confucius presented that the people should rectify names. The scope of a rectified name is not only in their corresponding actualities but it extends to people’s ranks, duties, and function (Wing, 1963, p. 41). The rectification of names and actualities will turn the track switch to return the train back to the direction that it should head to. If names are properly used and people are properly seated in their places then this would mean that things are being done correctly. It means that the people are living correctly and according to the Tao. Becoming aware of this problem and aiding it with the solution of the rectification of names and actualities will gradually pave the way for a virtuous life. The cultivation of man is a way to restore back the values that the people have lost along the way and it will also allow them to acquire more. If people are properly cultivated then people will have values that will serve as guides for them to live a correct life that will direct and motivate their actions to use names correctly and become the people that they ought to be in the society. Now we can see the importance of virtues in the cultivation of man since they motivate action and serves as standards for them to pursue their goals (Schwartz, 2012). Through virtues, man will be able to think whether or not their actions are right or wrong and decide which is good and which is bad based on the values that they have nurtured within them. Through philosophising, the power of proper discernment will come to man.

Philosophising will foster one to acquire the virtues needed for proper self-cultivation and it is through establishing the root and grounding oneself to the Tao is the catalyst that will direct him to the supreme end. Man is born with uprightness and man should use this intrinsic advantage for him to emerge from the state of inferiority. If properly maintained, this goodness in him will be manifested through his actions and it will continue to grow, leading him to do good to others. Because he is upright and because the Tao is embedded in his being, he will grow into a person worthy of his name. Man should utilise his goodness and his “innate appetite for knowledge” (Rosen, 2000, xv) to help him understand and think correctly about what is happening around him. Active thinking will allow him to understand why it is important for him to cultivate himself and help him achieve social harmony. Nietzsche (1974) believes that “the strength of knowledge depends on the edge to which is that been incorporated, on its character as a condition of life”. Discipline the body and mind according to the Tao and promulgate virtues to strengthen the character will educate and prepare an individual to live a life directed towards social harmony and reach the utmost stage of the development of the superior man.

Moses Maimonides’ The Guide for the Perplexed laid down the qualities of the both the prophet and the wise men. He described the constitutions of such a man as: …he must in addition have studied and acquired wisdom, so that his rational faculty passes from a state of potentiality to that of actuality his intellect must be as developed and perfect as human intellect can be; his passions pure and equally balanced; all his desires must aim at obtaining a knowledge of the hidden laws and causes that are in for in the Universe; his thoughts must be engages in lofty matters and an absence of lower desires and appetites… In addition, Maimonides furthered the qualities of the prophet that is very much similar to qualities of the Confucian gentleman- the prophet’s mental faculty will only be within the boundary of having knowledge that is real and that his thoughts (and actions) should be directed to general principles that would lead to the cultivation of social human relations. Those above are said to be two of the three kinds of perfection: mental perfection acquired by training and moral perfection produced by the suppression of every though of bodily pleasures, and of every kind of foolish of evil ambition (Rosen, 2000, p. 139-140). In this context, what was written above described the ideal human being.  

Analogous to this is how Confucius believes what a man should be and that in order for man to live in social harmony and become a sage is to cultivate himself by having the virtues of human-heartedness, filial piety and brotherly respect, propriety, wisdom, and righteousness. To do this is to set the will on the Way, have a first grasp on virtue, rely on humanity, and find recreation is the arts. Eastern schools of thoughts have always been directed at the improvement of the self, only varying in their end goals. The underlying thought of India’s Bhagavad-Gita enters on the idea that man should move out of Earth or the material world and transcend to the spiritual realm where the gods reside through the discipline of the self, especially the mind, from the influences of illusion and the desires brought upon by the material world. The significance in this is that Chen Lai, in her study on Studying Chinese Philosophy: Turn of the Century’s Challenges, she duly noted that the Eastern philosophical tradition were divided into Indian and Chinese Philosophy. Both have similarities in the cultivation of the person to achieve a desired end state. In the Indian context, this may entirely be religious only because the goal is directed to a Supreme Being instead of the elevation of the self as the ultimate end. Most of the early Japanese texts are usually headed as the “art of this” or the “way of that”. What “art” and what “way” mean are but methods- methods that when properly observe can bring about the desired result. The bottomline is that the Eastern discipline is a discipline about self-mastery and cultivation of the self. In order to become a full-pledged Japanese warrior you have to follow the way of the samurai. In order to triumph in the battlefield you have to master the art of war and so on and so forth. Same is true in the cultivation of the ideal human being. 

In himself, he must be that very person who adheres to the way of the Tao and embody the virtues of humanity, filial piety, propriety, wisdom, and righteousness. However, this is not an easy feat. Juggling all these virtues at once do sound impossible and that is why the chun-tzu is a development and like the person, they grow and mature with one another through the course of time. It is also important to note that the motivation behind this cultivation of the self is not entirely limited to the benefit of the agent alone but also for the benefit of others simply because he is a man of humanity and his actions are directed towards the desire to achieve social harmony. What makes the chun-tzu superior is that he is able to transcend beyond the confines of inferior desires like greed, material things, profit, and whatnot. Instead, he is guided by the virtues of humanity (jen), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), and wisdom (chih). 

As a social-moral philosophy, the cardinal virtue of benevolence is of primary importance in the development of the superior man. Without jen or the virtue of humanity, he cannot be what the the Analects purports him to be. As a social-relational being, he understands that he is not isolated- he understands that he is socially defined, first and foremost, by his family. He understands that the family, as the very basic unit of society, is the very first teacher that will establish the grounds and prepare him for self-development. It is in his family where man learns the meaning of family, how to love and respect his elders, brothers and sister, and it is where he learns how to relate with others in goodwill. 

Benevolence is also very social and relational because there needs to be a person who does the action and a person who, in turns, receives the action. Schwartz (2012) coined benevolence as something that “emphasise voluntary concern for others’ welfare. In Confucianism, this can be seen as human-heartedness and it’s very definition can also be translated into altruism. To love man is jen and according to Mencius, “to have a heart that cannot bear to see others” is also jen (Nadeau, 2012). The implication of the Confucian jen and the common benevolence cannot be without an another.  

Propriety is first learned in the family and what they basically are are shared experiences that can be manifested through rites and rituals. The richness and the value of tradition in Ancient China plays a major role in the creation and the development of the Chinese culture and society and it has very much influenced the Chinese identity. According to Lev Vygotsky, man, as a social being, cannot be separated from man and his environment. What a man should be is one who knows how to value propriety in his life and understand how important they are for the society. Along with the values of righteousness and wisdom, a man who have these cardinal values instilled in him will do right by himself and by others. Through his learnings, he will come to understand the importance, the worth of these values, and the role that they play in his continuous development. By living out these virtues in home, he will grow up and bring them outside, performing it out to a much larger field selflessly. Having been trained at home, he will carry all his learnings to his office and treat the people an extension of his primary family. He will treat the people equally and rightly, respect them and listen to them. He will do his obligations righteously and use all his wisdom for the benefit of the society. Anyone can be qualified in becoming a leader but only it is only the superior man who is fit and worthy to become one.

By being such, he will inspire others to do the same and so natural harmony in the society will be achieved if such a superior man will take seat in leading the people. His selfless devotion to everyone in the society will allow humanity to thrive and bring harmony to everyone. Therefore the key is for man to understand his position as a social-moral agent in leading the people and bringing about harmony in the society by cultivating and instilling the good virtues of humanity, propriety, righteousness, and wisdom in himself and allowing them to guide him and be one with the Tao. 

Philosophy is therefore that which guides an individual in cultivating himself and others through virtues to achieve a desirable end state that will promote harmony in humanity and in the world. In the context of this philosophy, what was forgotten (the Tao) should be remembered, through philosophising, and it is also through the cultivation of the self through the virtues that will align the self again with the Tao and cross out the problems that have caused the absence of social harmony in the society. It is also important to consider that philosophy is not limited to what is stated above. It’s a big world out there and this is only a part of it. However, what is important is that we should understand that Confucius wants us to grow in awareness that the absence of social harmony should be addressed and not by providing band-aid solutions only. What a man should be is the chun-tzu and if he can, the philosopher-king. 

II. Lao Tzu

Desmond (Rosen, 2000) defined Nature as “an organisation of univocal, impersonal forces, not an ambiguous community of personalised powers” and the many chapters of the Tao Te Ching have described Nature as such- that it is not biased and cannot be owned. To fully explain how Nature works can only be so much as it is elusive and at times hard to understand because of its very nature. Man have tried to understand it and having done so, they were able to come up with natural laws and such that have explained, at the very least, parts and pieces of the whole picture. By understanding its qualities, one can somehow create a solid perception of what Nature really is. By differentiating what is natural and otherwise will lead the person to a deeper grasp of its nature. 

One way of doing such is by being aware that opposites are natural. Realising that black implies white, that bad things are necessary and that they happen because they are a part of the whole process are the sure-steps that one can take in becoming aware of what Nature is. They happen because they are meant to do so- they are natural in the whole experience of the human life. By acknowledging these play of opposites, one will realise that the answer to the philosophical problem lies within the problem itself. There is an absence of natural harmony because people have failed to understand Nature itself and so a result, the people began to resist it, control it, and manipulate the world as they see fit. How can one fix a broken fan without understand its parts and pieces and their corresponding functions and such? 

It is also essential that in order for Natural harmony to be achieved one must understand the Tao that which gives birth to the 10,000 things requires a necessary emptiness. Understand how it works and see in the the world. Allow the mind to dig deep into the roots of the Tao and free the thoughts from any form of discrimination. Look at others as if you are looking at the Tao. Speak to others as if you are speaking to Nature. 

What better a man who can achieve natural harmony is one who understands Nature by not trying to understand it? What he should be is a person who does nothing, desires nothing, and knows nothing.  He does not do things carelessly no overdo his work, and most especially he does not attach himself to the fruits of his labor. He avoids the fast life yet he allows Nature to sweep him away. He understands this and so that is why he does not resist and let things fall into place. He desires nothing from this material world and his mind is empty. He simply is simple. His only purpose in life is to live according to Nature and according to the Tao and so, as a result, he is able to realise that natural harmony is what should be in this world. 

Such a man is a Sage. Such a man is one who embraces and accepts emptiness as essential is his life and knows that weakness can be a strength. He is open like a woman and full of unrealised potential like an infant. Translated, he is Tao-like. By philosophising, one can lead to a coherent and pure understanding of Nature. Additionally, he is able to embody the good virtues of the Tao and live out a life that is directed to achieving natural harmony. A person of this character is more than fit to become a ruler but what makes him remarkable is that he has no desire to hold such power and office. The qualities of a King is there in him, intrinsically. Such a person have transcended beyond the desires or even the mere want to have this kind of position in the society that will allow him to rule over others.

Such man is a Sage. A man who is, by all means, humble in his thoughts and ways, simple in his words, and content in his heart. 

What philosophy is therefore a guide for the individual how to co-exist with complete understanding of Nature to achieve a desirable end state which, in this case, natural harmony. The lack of reflection in ones life will cause one to take life for granted and lead a humdrum existence. Understand the self. Know who you truly are. Know that you are like an infant, full of vitality and energy and that you need the Tao to harness this positive potential in you so that you can grow in virtue and learn how live according to the Tao. 

Thus, it is shown that philosophy or Ancient Chinese Philosophy for this matter is all about the cultivation of the self- social and moral improvement for Confucianism and natural for Taoism, as a priming for ruling the state, for sagehood, or for being a philosopher-king. Through the method of cultivation and discipline of the self, these end-goals can become the motivating factors or the avenue to deal with the problem of the absence of social and natural harmony in the society. 

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References:

Brown, D. (Ed.). (2002). Career choice and development. John Wiley & Sons.

Rosen, S. (2000). The Philosopher’s Handbook. New York: Random House, Inc.

Wing, T. C. (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 11.

Nietzsche, F. (1974). The Gay Science. New York: Random House, Inc.

Nadeau, R. L. (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 

Making the Will Sincere

十七

~What does Confucius mean by making the will sincere? How does one make the will sincere? How does one know that the will is already sincere?

~Why is the task of making the will sincere the third step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

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Chang, 2013

“A Confucianist starts his moral self-cultivation with sincerity. His teacher tells him to be sincere first. Without sincerity, nothing can happen to him.”

“Have a sincere will!” his teacher orders him. “With a sincere will, you may have your mind rectified, oriented to the right direction.”

Sincerity, according to the Oxford dictionary, is taken as an emotion that is free from pretences or deceit. The Great Learning (ch.6) defined “making the will sincere” as allowing no self-deception.  Sincerity has always been vital for maintaining a genuine relationship with one’s friends, family, and acquaintances. Oftentimes, this deceit is not only directed to others but also to ourselves. Making the will sincere is not only limited to human relations. It can extend to one’s actions and how one goes about his everyday life. One may only be a simple baker but if he is sincere in his work and does it well with dedication, then there is genuineness in his efforts and actions. His actions of sincerity must be consistent: whether in dealing with a patron or a rich customer to his regular ones and behind closed doors. For this kind of man, success is waiting for him. The Filipino sense of “pakikipagkapwa” connotes a positive attitude towards others but the sincerity of that pakikipagkapwa must always be checked. Is our being sincere in its purest sense? Or is there any underlying motive behind our supposed to be sincere actions?

Chan, 1963

“Sincerity is not just a state of mind, but an active force that is always transforming things and completing things, and drawing man and Heaven together in the same current… If sincerity is to be true, it must involve strenuous effort at learning and earnest effort at practice… Sincerity is to be tested in ordinary words and ordinary deeds and its truth is understandable to the ordinary man.”

Berthrong & Berthrong, 2014

“Only with a sincere will focused on a reverence for the Way of the sages and worthies could the student make progress in self-cultivation.”

Sincerity comes in when one would begin to extend his knowledge. By doing so, he should start by investigating things. Now that things have been investigated, his knowledge has become extensive, making his thoughts sincere. Additionally, he who desires to correct and rectify his mind must first take a step to make his will sincere (Chan, 1963). To show one’s sincerity, correcting and refining one’s speech is a step. By doing this, one will not develop the habit of lying. 

Chang, 2013

“To improve one’s personality, three things must be done: enthusiastic learning, vigorous action, and avoidance of shame. These three things can only be done with a sincere will. When they are done, one is near to the three principal virtues in the world: wisdom, jen, and courage.”

Characteristic to the superior man is that he establishes himself and also wishes to establishes others (Analect 6:28). The same is true in sincerity. By being sincere, one will cause the things around him to go and mature (Chang, 2013). A person of sincere will, devoid of any pretence, will know how to examine himself without bias. Sincerity also has something to do with goodness and enlightenment. As we are born good, it would do well if we can retain that goodness in us as we grow, by doing so, one also keeps the virtue of sincerity by his side. Making the will sincere has something to do with dedication. Confucius always iterates that one needs to “set his will on the way”. One can do so by accepting and practicing the virtues of righteousness, benevolence, propriety, etc. When these actions of righteousness and benevolence are done with sincerity, then it is the Way.  

Chang, 2013

Doctrine of the Mean (20-25)

“Sincerity is Heaven’s way; to be sincere is man’s way… A sincere man sees things clearly. Conversely, when a man can see things clearly, he will want to be sincere without being told so… Sincerity is the beginning and the end of all things… A sincere man knows what has happened and what is going to happen… He can grasp what is important in the world and deal with its crucial problems… A great man is a sincere man… A sage is a man whose sincerity has reached a height as to be able to transform the world.”

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Learning

十六

~What does Confucius mean by learning? How is this different from the investigation of things? How is learning to be accomplished?

~Why does Confucius consider learning as the second step in the development of the superior man? What does it contribute to the development of his character?

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Tusculan Disputation, Cicero

Taken from The Consolations of Philosophy (de Botton, 2000)

“…scholarship is the means of making known to us, while still in this world, the infinity or matter, the immense grandeur of Nature, the heavens, the lands and the seas. Scholarship has taught us piety, moderation, greatness of heart; it snatches our souls from darkness and shows them all things, the high and the low, the first, the last and everything in between; scholarship furnishes us with the means of living well and happily; it teaches us how to spend our lives without discontent and without vexation.”

Oftentimes, we would hear people say that learning is a process. Modern interpretation and definition of learning entails reflection, thinking, application, and experiencing. Some would agree that this is so while others would not and so instead they would provide a counterargument or other designs for such. The social sciences would provide us with an extensive analysis of how learning occurs and of how learning takes place in the person’s cognitive area. Can a mere repetition of something be considered as learning? How about mastery or the degree of mastery of a person? When can we confidently say that we have learned something?

Chan, 1963

“…To Wang Su, hsi (to learn) means to recite a lesson repeatedly. To Chu Hsi, however, hsi means to follow the examples of those who are first to understand, and therefore it does not mean recitation but practice… Ch’ing scholars emphasised practical experience. In this case, hsi to them means both to repeat and to practice… Generally speaking, the dominant spirit of Confucian teaching is the equal emphasis on knowledge and action…”

What learning is varies from person to person. For Confucius, his idea of learning is greatly set on the Tao (Fung, 1947). For a college student, however, learning could mean being able to answer the questions on his examination or knowing what to do during a practical application examination. The mere accumulation of trivias or knowing a lot of jokes can be considered as learning. So on and so forth. The value that you place, however, on what you have learned creates a significant meaning of it to your life. Your intentions are also to be considered. If you set your mind on learning, only to put yourself up the pedestal and to put others below you (horizontal extravagance, Ricoeur), may not be as meaningful as learning for the sake of learning. A person may be considered high in position because of his wisdom but if his character dictates a starved personality, then a kind beggar who does not know how to read yet who is able to tell the time by the position of the sun may be a better person than him. What have you done with what you have learned?

Analect 1:14

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man does not seek fulfillment of his appetite nor comfort in his lodging. He is diligent in his duties and careful in his speech. He associates with men of moral principles and thereby realises himself. Such a person may be said to love learning.’”

In another note, we can also take learning and experiencing as one. Suppose that on your way home a book by the display window of a shop has caught your attention. Checking it out, it drew you in and you begin to want the book. You check the price and then your allowance. Seeing that you have money, you decided to buy the book even if it would mean limiting your budget for the week. Suppose something happened within that week, something that you need to pay a certain amount. Then you begin to think. If you did not buy the book you could pay and not feel bad about it and you didn’t have to limit your food budget. The next time that it happens to you, you now have two choices. Either you wait and save extra money to be able to buy what you want or buy it right away regardless of the consequences that you have experienced. Learning from your mistake is one thing but correcting your mistake is another: you have learned not to do it again. Whatever happened before, you charge it as a learning experience: …he who thinks but does not learn is in danger (Analect 2:15). What is the end product of what you have learned?

Analect 7:27

“Confucius said, ‘There are those who act without knowing. But I am not one of them. To hear much and select what is good and follow it, to see much and remember it, is the second type of knowledge.’”

Learning can take on many forms. Knowledge, skills, and abilities are but of the many things that can be learned. It can also evolve and even develop into something concrete, something utilitarian. Making use of what you have learned is learning in itself.

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Investigation of Things

十五

~What does Confucius mean by the investigation of things? What is the scope of the investigation? How are the things to be investigated?

~Why is the investigation of things the first step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

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ko-wu

Hoobler & Hoobler, 2009 

(as cited in Creel’s Chinese Thought: From Confucius to Mao)

“…The reason we cannot be sages or worthy men is that we lack the great strength that is needed for the investigation of things.”

“Knowing” something is never truly enough and the same goes for being able to understand only what is on the surface or getting the gist or the general idea of a certain subject matter. Regarding this as knowledge is the same as accepting what is not true, for this kind of knowledge is not only lacking but also empty. A superior man is one who is unsatisfied with such because for as long as things are not properly investigated, then knowledge will be, as a result, incomplete. Zhu Xi, a Confucian scholar from the Song Dynasty, believes that the investigation of things serves as the very foundation of true knowledge which acts as a support and a motivating factor for self-cultivation. For him, the investigation of things can also mean as the investigation of moral knowledge. According to him, “…we should apply ourselves to [the study of] things so as to gain an exhaustive knowledge of their Li,” or in other words, one should investigate things to discern their defining patterns.

Analect 19:7

“Tsze-hsia said, ‘Mechanics have their shops to dwell in, in order to accomplish their works. The superior man learns, in order to reach to the utmost of his principles.’”

The expansion of knowledge for self-cultivation can also be achieved through the investigation of things. Just as life is a process and just as there is a due process for accomplishing any kind of task, so does when one aspires to go beyond than being just a man or the kind of man that he is at present. Therefore, what constitutes a superior man is his inclination to know the root and his desire to perfect his knowledge. The investigation of things also demands one to admit his foolishness or his ignorance when he is lacking.

Analect 2:17

“Confucius said, ‘Yu, shall I teach you [the way to acquire] new knowledge? To say that you know and say that you do not know when you do not know- that is [the way to acquire] knowledge.’”

Taylor & Choy, 2005

“Investigation of Things is predicated for the School of Principle of the belief that all things possess principle (li). In turn it is the goal of humankind to come to a complete understanding of the nature of Principle, a state that is characterised as sagehood.”

But how does one perfect his knowledge? To this, The Great Learning acts as a guide, a moral guide, for one to cultivate his character into that of a superior man: extension of knowledge consists of the investigation of things… From the king down to the common people, all must regard  the cultivation of the self as the most essential thing. Through learning or investigation of things, one will surely arrive at the core of it all— the principle of things. The importance of being able to understand the principle of things will allow one to fully comprehend how the world works thus, his actions will be in accordance to what should be done and how he will properly perform the act. Therefore, knowing must answer the questions of why, how, and what for. By fulfilling these, one can arrive in the knowledge as how he should exercise it- action. That is to say:

Analect 7:3

“The Master said, ‘the leaving virtue without proper cultivation; the not thoroughly discussing what is learning; not being able to move towards righteousness of which a knowledge is gained; and not being able to change what is not good—these are the things that make me uncomfortable.’”

A superior man with an intelligent mind soaks himself with knowledge that allows his to know what is good and what is right at all occasions, even in moments of haste. Reaching the summit of our knowledge is through the investigation of things. One can know what is right and what is wrong through investigating it. One can know the proper method of doing an activity through investigating it. One can know how to do a ritual properly by investigating how to do it and why it is done as such. Being a learned person makes one a superior man. 

If one studies a number of subjects, he broadens the scope of his mind and his imagination. By studying the arts, he will become well-versed in that area. By studying medicine he will be able to understand the frailty and mortality of man. By studying the things around him, he will understand the world external to him. By studying history and politics he will understand the course of human society and of how it is and should be governed. One should not confine himself only to one subject. Through broadening one’s interest and learning with enthusiasm about the great things about him, he inflates himself— he becomes a bigger man. 

Chai & Chai, 1973

…the extension of knowledge is “knowing the utmost” and “reaching it”. It is extending the intuitive knowledge of our mind…

…”the extension of intuitive knowledge” as not “something illusory, hazy, in a vacuum [devoid of Li], and unreal”; it is rather “something real.”

The Great Learning, 5

Extension of knowledge consists of the investigation of things.

When things are investigated, knowledge is extended.

When knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere.

When the will is sincere, the mind is correct.

When the mind is correct, the self is cultivated.

When the self is cultivated, the clan is harmonised. 

When the clan is harmonised, the country is well governed.

When the country is well governed, there will be peace throughout the land.

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Chih as a Cardinal Virtue

十四

~What does Confucius mean by chih (wisdom)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of chih?

~Why does Confucius identify chih as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~How is this virtue related to jen, yi, and li?

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Analect 2:17

“Confucius said, ‘Yu, shall I teach you [the way to acquire] knowledge? To say that you know when you do know and say that you do not know when you do not know- that is [the way to acquire] knowledge.’”

Chih, for Confucius, is moral wisdom. It is the ability to discern the right from wrong and the good from bad. Chih, however innate (Mencius and Confucius), puts an emphasis on it as a process of experiencing where once is involved in the act of knowing. It is also a partial fulfilment for being a gentleman. It helps one realise what it means to be a gentleman. Chih entails both learning and thinking. It describes one who engages critical thinking and reflecting so as to filter and know the information that he is gaining. 

Bell, 2010

“…Moral wisdom is important in Confucianism, but it is not as important as the ideal of a gentleman. A gentleman is a person who who possesses the ideal virtue of jen (benevolence), which is an all-encompassing virtue, including others like wisdom, respect, faith,… etc. And the essence of this ideal virtue is benevolence or love for fellow humans…”

People tend to rush into things whether it be by their actions of by their words. More often than not, we can sometimes hear others saying that there are instances of action without thought or speaking without thinking which eventually leads them in tight situations. This is the kind of behaviour that we must unlearn. We must also avoid being like a sponge where we absorb everything. Being a filter is better. 

Analect 7:27

“Confucius said, ‘There are those who act without knowing [what is right]. But I am not one of them. To hear much and select what is good and follow it, to see much and remember it, it the second type of knowledge.”

Analect 6:18

“Confucius said, ‘To know it [learning or the Way] is not as good as to live it, and to love it is not as good as to take delight in it.’”

Fung (1947) settled chih as the foundation for one to be able to understand human-heartedness, righteousness, and propriety- a man must have an understanding of jen before he can do jen acts (p.18). In chih’s relation to jen, yi, and li, Fung furthered his discussion by going back to Analect 2:4: …wisdom was understanding in relation to jen, yi, and li… being able to follow rituals would mean that one is right but this is not to say that one is doing the act rightly. One must be able to understand to be able to have a perfect understanding of human-heartedness or righteousness. With wisdom, one ceases to objectify oneself. Acting out jen, yi, and li without chih is empty and meaningless.

Doctrine of the Mean 20

“Some are born with knowledge. Some learn it through study. Some learn it through hard work. But when the knowledge is acquired, it comes to the same thing. Some practice them natural and easily. Some practice them for their advantage. Some practice them with effort and difficulty. But when the achievement is made, it comes to the same thing.”

“Confucius said, ‘Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with visor is akin to humanity, To know to be shameful is akin to courage. He who knows these three things knows how to cultivate his personal life. Knowing how to cultivate his personal life, he knows how to govern other man. And knowing how to govern other men, he knows how to govern the empire, its states, and the families.’”

Confucius went beyond the common meaning of learning. For him, learning is learning the Tao. Learning in the prior would only mean as the expansion of knowledge while the latter would want one to be self-realised. Wisdom or knowledge alone is useless and the same goes for learning without doing without understand what or why are you doing such. For those who are quick to learn may be at an advantage but it they fail to cultivate or use it for humanity then their actions may be deemed as not remarkable. For those who are slow to learn will do so at their own pace and seek the virtue of meekness for them to be able to learn. What it is importance is that one should make use of his wisdom in good relation to those around him- …the man of wisdom cultivates humanity for its advantage (Analect 1:16).

Analect 6:20

“Fan Ch’ih asked about wisdom. Confucius said, ‘Devote yourself earnestly to the duties due to men, and respect spiritual beings (especially ancestors) but keep them at a distance. This may be called wisdom…’”

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Li as a Cardinal Virtue

十三

~What does Confucius mean by li (propriety)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of li?

~Why does Confucius identify li as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~How is this virtue related to jen and yi?

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Analect 10:9

“When his mat was not straight [Confucius] did not sit on it.”

Such is the importance of li or propriety for Confucius that even in the littlest of things, we would insist on the correctness of his actions and of the things around him. Similar to most of Confucius’ virtues, li can mean more than a thing or two. As li’s numerous definitions are tangled in a web together, so does its expanse in the individual and social context. While the li here is taken as propriety, it can also mean ritual action or morals. Li requires one’s active participation for it to be expressed as the activities [rituals] greatly correspond to the promotion of jen. Like the Tao, li teaches one the principles of how to live. If li is followed then the whole of society will work smoothly. 

Analect 1:12

“Yu Tzu said, ‘Among the functions of li the most valuable is that it establishes harmony. The excellence of the ways of ancient kings consists of this. It is the guiding principle of all things great and small. If things go amiss, and you, understanding harmony, try to achieve it without regulating it by the rules of propriety, they will still go amiss.’”

The way to achieve harmony in the society and jen is through going back to li. Constantly, is what Confucius said (Analect 12:1). Sprunger described li as the gentleman’s external expression and jen as what is inside. Thus, if li and jen are both embodied within a person, then he is the end goal of the whole Confucian philosophy: he is a chun tzu (An Introduction to Confucianism, n.d.). Li prescribes the proper etiquettes under any event to a man from the properties of a ceremony (Analect 3:4) to how a ruler and a minister should act and serve (Analect 3:19). It also dictates how filial piety is to be expressed (Analect 2:5), how mournings and sacrifices to one’s ancestors should be done, and how one should conduct himself in a convention. Li is also important in the development of a gentleman. Social harmony can be established as li promotes ethics and proper decorum. Even if it limits one’s actions, it keeps the person in line and guides him how to act rightly so as to avoid disharmony: the noble man who studies culture extensively, and disciplines himself with propriety can keep from error (Analect 6:27).  

Fung, 1976 

(Hsun Tzu)

“…But the world is not so ideal. People must live together, and in order to do so without contention, a millet must be imposed on everyone in the satisfaction of his desires. The function of li is to set this limit. When there are the lu, there is morality. He who acts according to the li acts morally. He who acts against them acts immorally.”

(Confucianism)

“…li is a very comprehensive idea. It can be translates as ceremonies, rituals, or rules of social conduct… The function of li is to regulate. The li provide regulation for the satisfaction of man’s desires. But in the sense of ceremonies and rituals, the lie have another function, that of refining. In this sense, the li give refinement and purification to man’s emotions…”

Acting righteously also denotes that one is acting in accordance to the morals and the societal laws for laws are made to keep peace and eliminate disorder in the society: without propriety and righteousness, there will be rebellion, disorder, and chaos… The sage-kings of antiquity created the rules of propriety and righteousness and instituted laws and systems in order to correct man’s feelings, transform them, and direct them so that they all may become disciplined and conform with the Way (Chan, 1963). 

By following propriety and righteousness, one will grow up straightly and correctly. Such a man will never be swayed. Confucius would bid one to avoid what is opposed to propriety, to turn a deaf ear towards what is contrary to propriety, to speak what is contrary to propriety, and not to make any actions that are opposed to propriety (Analect 12:1). 

Analect 20:3

“Without an acquaintance of the rules of propriety, it is impossible for the character to be established.”

Further in Chan’s A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, he stressed that both righteousness and propriety are attained through hard work. He also extended that since both virtues are not nature to man, they should be sought out just as how one would seek the way on how to be a true gentleman. Like jen, propriety makes the extension from one person to another. Entwining both main virtues together would create a cultivated man with a good moral bone. Li is also a guide as to how one should associate with another by observing good manners and right conduct, one can avoid conflict that may have a tendency to grow bigger. 

Analect 15:32

“Confucius said, ‘When a man’s knowledge is sufficient for him to attain [his position] but his humanity is not sufficient for him to hold it, he will lose it again. When his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it and his humanity is sufficient for him to hold it , if he does not approach the people with dignity, the people will now respect him. If his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it, his humanity sufficient for him to hold it, and he approaches the people with dignity, ye does not influence them with the principle of propriety,it is still not good.”

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Yi as a Cardinal Virtue

十二

~What does Confucius mean by yi (righteousness)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of yi?

~Why does Confucius identify yi as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~What are its expressions?

~How is this virtue related to jen?

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Cheng, 1972

“Yi is the very principle which should make a person’s conduct morally acceptable to others and which should justify the morality of human actions. In other words, it may be suggested that yi is the fundamental principle of morality that confers qualities of righting wrong on human actions and that produces situation which intrinsically satisfies us as moral agents.” 

Yi or righteousness has been defined at the “oughtness of a situation”: every one in society has certain things which he ought to do, and which must be done for their own sake, because they are the morally right things to do (Fung, 1948). Being righteous means that one’s action is in accordance to what one is ought to be doing given his position in the society or in the family. Being righteous is, in a sense, being just, and it also connotes that a righteous man is he who acts modesty and considers the others around him. Several of Confucius’ Analects have greatly contrasted the superior man from the inferior man through their actions just righteousness and profit had been placed on the opposing sides. The higher man as one who understands moral principles and the lower as one who only thinks about profit (Analect 14:24). In Wing- Tsit Chan’s A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, he footnoted Chu Hsi’s own interpretations that was in order with his own philosophy:

“…not to mean to understand but to reach, and said that the superior man reaches the higher level because he follows the Principle of Nature while the inferior man reaches the lower level because he is carried away by selfish human desires.”

In its simplest sense, however, yi means giving up one’s life for justice. Confucius considers yi as the basis of being a gentleman. Yi is important for one who is developing himself to be a gentleman for without righteousness, he will never become the higher man. A gentleman not only puts the moral way before him but he also understands righteousness and uses it as a standard for living. This activity of the moral man can be directly attributed to jen: every man should, without thoughts of personal advantage, unconditionally do what he ought to do, and be what he ought to be. In other words, he should “extend himself so as to include others,” which, in essence is the practice of jen (Fung, pg. 69).

Analect 17:23

“Tzu-lu asked, ‘Does the superior man esteem courage?’ Confucius said, ‘The superior man considers righteousness as the most important. When the superior man has courage but no righteousness, he becomes turbulent. When the inferior man has courage but no righteousness, he becomes a thief.’”

If one’s motives and one’s actions are justified not by morality but by other selfish reasons, then he can no longer be considered as righteous. From simple decision making to big choices that may affect other people around him, a true righteous man is he who follows righteousness as his code of honour (Analect 4:10). With a disposition to do what is morally good, a righteous man preserves his virtues and integrity by doing what is right.  

Analect 15:17

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man regards righteousness as the substance of everything. He practices it according to the principles of propriety. He brings it forth in modesty. And carries it to its conclusion with faithfulness. He is indeed a superior man!’”

Dr. Manuel B. Dy Jr. dedicated a paragraph in his article on The Confucian Jen with jen and its connection to righteousness by going back to Mencius who made the link in the first place: jen is the distinguishing characteristic of the human when embodied in the human conduct; it is the way (Mencius VII B:16). Confucius also described the righteous man in terms of his conduct towards his success in life. If he obtains his wealth by dirtying his hands, then the wealth is nothing but dust. No matter how simple his joys and his possessions in life is, just as long as he remains clean in his conduct and his actions, then he is indeed the righteous man (Analect 7:15). Out of the five important tenets that make up Confucianism, righteousness is one as it is an indispensable condition for jen and for the gentleman. 

Fung, 1976 (pg.42)

“The idea of yi is rather formal, but that of jen is much more concrete. The formal essence of the duties of man in the society is their “oughtness,” because all there duties are what he ought to do. But the material essence of these duties is “loving others”."

Righteousness maintains that one’s action should be rational at all cost without succumbing to temptations. Being able to recognise what is right from what is wrong is one of the characteristics of a righteous man and as it is closely related to jen, by doing what is good and what is right, one is considering others. Respecting someone (jen) means that one should act right towards him (yi). As an example, we can look at Freud’s Psychoanalysis on the human psyche: id, ego, and superego. A righteous mean does not act rashly and impulsively. He does not give in to his id and let his aggressive primal nature get the best of him. He would control his id and ensures that his rationality will provide him what is best (ego) by checking his superego which can tell him what is right from what is wrong. As it is in deep contradiction with the id, the superego would restrain him by reminding him of his society’s rules, ethics, and morals. 

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Shu as an Expression of Jen

十一

~What does Confucius mean by shu (altruism)? What is its most famous expression? Why does he consider it an expression of jen? How does it express jen?

~How does one exercise shu? What is its difference from the Christian Golden Rule?

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Altruism, according to Confucius, is that which serves as the guiding principle for conduct throughout life. Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you (Analect 15:23). This Analect is strikingly similar to what the Christians have termed as the Golden Rule or the Ethic of Reciprocity. The principle of the Golden Rule was announced by Jesus on the Sermon on the Mount.

Matthew 7:12

“So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets.”

Along the same line, Hinduism and Buddhism also speaks of the same thought (but not limited to):

Mahabharata 5:1517

“This is the sum of duty. Do not unto others that which would cause you pain if done to you.”

Udana Varga 5:18

“Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful. 

Scholars of the Confucian tradition have categorised chung or conscientiousness as the positive aspect of the practice and shu or altruism as the negative. Herewith, taken as a whole, is the right way to practice and to exercise jen and now that the principle of chung has been established in the previous entry Chung as an Expression of Jen, we will see how shu is developed. According to Fung Yu-Lan (1976), there practices are not forced because “the original natures of all men have in them a feeling of commiseration, which makes it impossible to them to bear to see the suffering of others.” This is also true in the simplest sense of altruism as it shows a person who helps other, whole-heartedly and without the ego, without asking and expecting for anything in return. Founder of Sociology Auguste Comte coined altruism as the antonym of egoism. Chan’s (1963) commentary on Analect 4:15 took Ch’eng I’s explanations regarding chung and shu: the former as the substance and the latter as the function. 

Analect 14:36

“Someone said, ‘What do you think of repaying hatred with virtue?’ Confucius said, ‘In that case what are you going to repay virtue with? Rather, repay hatred with uprightness and repay virtue with virtue.’”

However negative, shu can be interpreted at the extension of the mind [that is originally good] to others (Chan, 1963). 

Fung, 1947

“Chung is the positive aspect of extending oneself to include one’s fellow men, shu is the negative.”

“Men can also take what they do not desire, to illustrate what other men do not desire. This in truth is what is called shu. Thus, “to extend the scope of one’s actions” to include others, this is the starting point of the practice of jen.” 

Shu is the proactive application of jen since it now involves others. Show goodness to others without hiding a knife behind your back and they too to you. If they treat you wrongly, still do them good because this is the moral way and this is the right way.

Analect 9:13

“Confucius wanted to live among the nine barbarous tribes of the East. Someone said, ‘They are rude. How can you do it?’ Confucius said, ‘If a superior man lives there, what rudeness would there be?’”

From this Analect, we can foresee what will happen when the superior man who was able to cultivate himself (chung) will do such towards others (shu). This is humanity. 

Analect 12:2

“…Do not do unto others what you do not want them to do unto you. Then there will be no complaint against you…”

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Chung as an Expression of Jen

十

~What does Confucius mean by chung (conscientiousness)? Why does he consider it an expression of jen? How does it express jen?

~How does one exercise chung? What is its difference from self-centeredness? What is its difference from stubbornness or narrow-mindedness?

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The way to practice jen, according to Fung (1976), is through the applications of its expressions: chung or conscientiousness and shu or altruism. Since jen materialises a person with “a heart that cannot bear to see others suffer” (Mencius), it greatly implies that the person must extend beyond himself. He must reach out to others- he must connect. Therefore, by practising chung and shu, which are those that grounds jen, also means that one is practising jen. 

The generic knowledge of the importance of being able to know and being able to love oneself is the manifestation of chung. One must thereby be human before he can act as one. In this sense starts the goodness that one can be able to act out through shu. 

Fung, 1976 (Mencius IB, 9)

“If the King, by understanding his own desires, would also come to understand the desires of all his people, and would take measures whereby the people might satisfy these desires, this would result in the kingly way and nothing else.”

One will always see chung and shu as hand in hand and that both works well as a pair because chung and shu implies each other. As chung is one’s obligation to the self, by shu, one looks and acts upon his obligation to the others. However, taking them separately makes the Confucian Golden Rule available.

Analect 6:28

“…A man of humanity, wishing to establish his own character, also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, also helps others to be prominent. To be able to judge others by what us near to ourselves may be called the method of realising humanity.”

Let’s take a look at a Confucian gentleman. He is one who lives by the Way, has a firm grasp on virtue, relies on humanity, and finds pleasure in arts (Analect 7:6) and because he is already a gentleman, it goes to show that he has already developed himself.

Analect 14:45

“…Confucius said, ‘A superior man is one who cultivates himself with seriousness… He cultivates himself so as to give all people security and peace. To cultivate oneself so as to give all people security and peace…”

In this Analect, Chan (1963) made a comment:

“…As Ch’eng I put it, chung is the Way of Heaven, whereas shu is the way of man; the former is substance, while the latter is function. Liu Pao-nan is correct in equating chung with Confucius’ saying, ‘Establish one’s own character,’ and shu with ‘Also establish the character of others. Here is the positive version of the Confucian golden rule. The negative version is only one side of it.’”

In Fung Yu-Lan’s The Spirit of Chinese Philosophy (1947), he echoed Chu Hsi explaining that “to do one’s very best that is chung, to extend this beyond oneself is shu” and by his own, “Chung is the positive aspect of extending oneself to include one’s fellow men…”

So before one can showcase jen, one must first ground himself with chung. He must look back upon his actions and look ahead to make sure that he is following the right Tao. He must examine himself in his every thoughts and actions and maintain the stance that he is a man of humanity and a man for humanity. Therefore the superior man maintains harmony [in his nature and conduct] and does not waver (DotM, 10). Doctrine of the Mean 14 also lists down the qualities of a gentleman who lives in accordance to the Way. 

Fung, 1947 

“A jen man is sure to have good ability in considering others…”

“Jen is the very centre of Confucius’ philosophy and chung and shu are the starting points of jen.”

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T'i as Root of Jen

九

~What does Confucius mean by t’i (brotherly respect)? Why does he consider it a root of jen?

~What are the different ways in which t’i finds expression?

~What does Confucius mean by chung (conscientiousness) Why does he consider it an expression of jen?

~How does one exercise chung? What is its difference from self-centeredness? What is its difference from stubbornness or narrow-mindedness?

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Great Learning, 9

“Brotherly respect is that which one serves his elders, and  deep love is that with which one treats the multitude… The Book of Odes says, ‘They were correct and good to their elder brothers. they wee correct and good to their younger brothers.’ Only when one is good and correct to one’s elder and younger brothers can one teach the people of the country. “

Analect 1:2 tells us that filial piety (hsiao) and brotherly love (t’i) are the root of humanity (jen). For Mencius, the Confucian tradition presents to us five relationships that are crucial: parent and child, minister and ruler, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. The basis for filial piety is different from that of brotherly love. Fung (1976) categorised three out of five of the relationship as familial and the two, however not, can be taken as familial as well. T’i acts merely as some sort of an extension and promotes mutual support from both brothers. The Book of Mencius also points out that the elder and the younger brother should have an understanding of their mutual rank. 

Wright, 1975

“The behavioural content of brotherly love as given by the clan rules clearly underscores its co-operative nature: affection and kindness on the part of elder brothers, respect and deference on the part of younger brothers.” 

Slote and De Vos, 1998

“The reason that filial piety and brotherly love are considered roots of jen for realising full humanity is partly due to the Confucian belief that moral self-cultivation begins with the recognition that biological bondage provides an authentic opportunity for personal realisation. 

Brotherly love means that one is respectful to others just as he is pure in his love. He treats his brother well and lives in harmony with his family and those around him. The concept of brotherly love or brotherly respect is different in the Confucian sense. If one is a brother, by blood and name, does not act as one, can he still be considered as a brother? If one, who is not related to you, acts like a brother to you, can you then consider him as one?

Fung, 1976

“To extend the love for one’s family so as to include persons outside it as well, is to practice that ‘principle of chung (conscientiousness to others) and shu (altruism).

Chung and shu are both the expressions of jen while hsiao and t’i are its roots. The Confucian tradition establishes harmony and peace by being able to overcome the differences and the problems that are created by hierarchical relations. Filial piety and brotherly love or brotherly respect also acts at the applications of jen (Chang, 2013).

Analect 1:2

“Yu Tzu said, ‘Few of those who are filial sons and respectful brothers will show disrespect to superiors, and there has never been a man who is not disrespectful to superior and yet creates disorder. A superior man is devoted to the fundamental. When the root is firmly established, the Tao will grow. Filial piety and brotherly respect are the root of humanity.”

In Fung Y-Lan’s A short History of Chinese Philosophy, he explained the exact definition of chung or conscientiousness as “neither too much nor too little, that is, just right”. Furthermore, in the Doctrine of the Mean, the state of chung is described as “to have no emotions of pleasure or anger, sorrow or joy, welling up”. As one is conscientious, he does his work well with other people in mind. For others, however, they have a different connotation of chung: 

Chan, 1963 (Analect 4:15 commentary)

“All agree, however, on the meanings of chung and shu, which are best expressed by Chu Hsi, namely chung means the full development of one’s [originally good] mind… Lui Pao-nan is correct in equating chung with Confucius’ saying, ‘Establish one’s own character’”.

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Hsiao as Root of Jen

八

~What does Confucius mean by hsiao (filial piety)? Why does he consider it a root of jen?

~What are the different ways in which hsiao is expressed?

*****

The family is considered as the basic unit of the society. Within that family is a group of people who shares the same name, the same blood, and bond. Each member of the family plays a role that can be exclusive only to them depending on their position and the circumstances. As an example, in the Filipino sense, the mother takes on the role of the “ilaw ng tahanan” and the father as the “haligi ng tahanan”. As the superior members of the family fulfil their roles, as such, the children should also do so. 

Brians et al. (1999) described filial piety as the foremost responsibility of the Chinese people. While still young, the child must be obedient to his parents. He should also be respectful and caring. After  their death, the child must continue his service through ritual sacrifices and honour the family name through excellence in his career and social standing. As it is his responsibility, the child, having grown into a man, must continue the family line and provide sons that would become the next generation. If the wife is barren, he could either take a second wife or adopt. 

In the case of a woman-child, however, it is different. Filial piety, if having married into the man’s family, means that she should be obedient to her in-laws. It is her duty to provide her husband a son that will bear the family name. If she and her mother-in-law are not in good terms, the son must favour his mother and his duty would entail him to remove the wife from her position. He could always get a wife, but he would only have one mother (Brains et al., 1999). Being filial connotes that one is fit to be a son. He is devoted, loyal, and compliant as what a son should be towards his parents. 

Doctrine of the Mean, 19

“…Men of filial piety are those who skilfully carry out the wishes of their forefathers and skilfully carry forward their undertakings… To occupy place of their forefathers, to practice their rites, to perform their music, to reverence those whom they honoured, to love those who were dear to them, to serve the dead as they were served while alive, and to serve the departed as they were served while still with us: this is the height of filial piety.”

Comparable to the Doctrine of the Mean above is Analect 2:5 in which Confucius explained to Fan Ch’ih about what filial piety means. In the Master’s explained, li comes in. For him, li is the way to achieve jen. To be filial also means that one should adhere to the proprieties when it comes to dealing with the passage of life of one’s forefathers. Li, jen, and xiao works together and they can also be incorporated with one another.

Analect 12:2 [li and jen]

“Confucius said, ‘To master oneself and retune to propriety is humanity.’”

Analect 2:5 [li and xiao]

“When parents are alive, see them according to the rules of propriety. When they die, bury them according to the rules of propriety and sacrifice to them according to the rules of propriety.”

The Confucian tradition takes filial piety as fundamental and as the root of of all virtues. Filial piety is not only considered as way of life but it also establishes the ranking of the society (Zi, 2008).

Xiao Jing, 1

“Xiao is the foundation of virtue, and is what all teachings grow out of… The body, the hair, and skin, all have been received from the parents, and so one doesn’t dare damage them- that is the beginning of the xiao.”

“Establishing oneself, practicing the Way, spreading the fame of one’s name to prosperity, so that one’s parents become renowned- that is the end of xiao.”

Care and concern for one’s parents are also important in filial piety. “Never disobey,” was what Confucius told his disciple. If his parents are sick, the son should be worried (2:6). Analects 4:18 also heeds the son to treat his parents well. 

Analect 4:21

“Confucius said, ‘When his parents are alive, a son should not go far abroad; or if he does, he should let them know where he goes.” 

Analect 1:6

“Young men should be filial when at home and respectful to their elders when away from home…”

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