The Tao as the Origin

老子

四

~What does Lao Tzu mean by the Tao (Way)? What is its basic principle?

~How does the Tao operate as the origin of all things?

~What role does the Tao play in the philosophy of Lao Tzu?

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Fung, 1948

The Tao of Taoism is the unitary “that” from which springs the production and change of all things in the universe.

Tao, as the source of all things, even if formless, is beyond heaven and earth and the Tao, as the origin of all things, bring harmony to it all. It cannot be seen, cannot be heard, and cannot be felt, it is unfathomable and obscure. The Tao as everything and nothing can be seen in George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire’s Faceless Men. You have to lose your identity in order to become someone. This is comparable to the Tao since it can be considered as the source of existence and non-existence and by becoming no one, you can become someone. 

Action and non-action also center on the Tao, with non-action (wu-wei) as “taking no action that is contrary to Nature (Chan, 1963). This shows that Tao and Nature go together. Letting go and allowing things fall into their own place naturally is  the Way. The Tao also speaks of the Unity of Opposites, about Yin and Yang, and this concept is central in its doctrines because equilibrium is of utmost important to the Tao. By achieving this state of balance and harmony, the Tao also sets its goal on being able to unite with nature. As an example, let us look at the Taoist philosophy and the Taoist religion. Both may be the same but in fact, they are not. Taoist philosophy teaches that nature must be followed while Taoist religion is set to work against nature (Fung, 1948)

And so the Tao, as a whole, is the source of all there is, the supreme, the boundless and indescribable, formless and infinite, and above all, the Tao is natural. 

The essence of the Tao refers to several terms just like Confucianism. The Tao goes by wu and yu (non-being and being), yu-wei and wu-wei (action and non-action), yu-ming and wu-ming (namable and unnamable), the (virtue), tzu jan (naturalness), yin and yang, and ch’i (cosmic energy). It is also duly noted that as Tao gives birth tho things (or the ten thousand things), a lot of things also take part in complete them. That being so, it does not come as a surprise when Tao is also considered as the Mother of All Things (Great Mother). 

Fung, 1948

Lao Tzu speaks about the unnamable. Not everything that lies beyond shapes and features is unnamable. Universals, for instance, lie beyond shapes and features, yet they are not unnamable. But on the other hand, what is unnamable most certainly does lie beyond shapes and features. The Tao or Way of the Taoists is a concept of this sort.

Comparable to the Science of Identity Foundation, a group that believes and practices Hinduism, they deeply believe in the Bhagavad-Gita stating that we are all but part and parcel of Krsna. Even in a single grain, a drop of water, a lone leaf floating in the air, Krsna is there. And this is to say that the Tao, Mother of all Things and Origin of All Things, appear to be everywhere and at the same time nowhere. Tao also acts as the energy behind all things. It acts as the very essence of things and that is to say that it also acts as the energy of the essence behind Taoism.

Tao Te Ching, 14

Meet it and you will not see its head.

Follow it and you will not see its back. 

*****

哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1D

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

D. in the way he specifies the solution to the philosophical problem?

Chan, 1963 

(Book of History)

“Let the king be serious in what he does. He should not neglect to be serious with virtue.”

Therefore, nurture your values and do not forget it. Govern the state together with your virtues for they will act as your staff as you go along the Path. Govern the state together with your virtues for they will never part with you as long as you keep them close. Your virtues will be crucial in fulfilling your duties and most importantly, they will help you keep your lands secure and they will help you sustain harmony within the community. 

This virtuous man must be a cultivated man- a superior man, a gentleman, a noble man. He should be, by all means, a chun-tzu. And because he is a chun-tzu, he knows how do things rightly. First, he starts with his own self. Nothing should go past him, as he is a superior man he is always careful in his ways inside and the outside his office and inside and outside his own home. He makes sure that names are used correctly in accordance with their purpose for Confucius believes that not being able to correct names and their actualities would lead to social disorder. Confucius also extends this to the ranks and positions of men in the family and in the society.  Violation of this is but a symptom of social disorder. In line with this, the superior man should give great importance to tradition and tradition should be maintained and followed correctly. A superior man, for Confucius, is one who keeps the tradition alive and makes sure that rituals are properly followed. 

Another solution to the problem lies in the faculty of the mind. A superior man must do so well in this area and must have wisdom to be able to discern what is good and what is bad and he should have the wisdom to do good. If born with knowledge, the superior man must seek more and nurture his intelligence and if he is born without, seek it still. By this he is able to slowly develop himself and his character. He should understand and reach for the higher goals and be wary of inferior men. By being aware of such men in the society, he will try to cultivate them as he continues to cultivate his own self. With this, he is not only a man for himself but a man for others as well. 

Upon cultivating himself, Confucius believes that having a heart for others is very important in being able to develop all other virtues. Benevolence is key to the whole process that will end disharmony in the society. Nurturing jen, the superior man should also take not of his relations with his family. A superior man is one who knows how to be filial and knows how to respect his brothers. These two virtues that enters around the family are the roots of humanity. 

The conduct of the superior man, for Confucius, should be that one thread that runs in his doctrines. Altruism and conscientiousness both goes hand in hand and work better together. Through this, the superior man can exercise his humaneness and at the same time, he is able to call others to do the same. His actions should adhere to what is moral. Being righteous means that he should not tolerate any form of injustice. For Confucius and for the superior man, what is ought to be should be. Above all this, he should tread carefully and use only the road that is correct- the Way. 

With this he emerges out and begins another journey. To complete the solution, he will begin by investigation things. In order to learn and to acquire the knowledge that he needs, the superior man should start by investigating things. If he study things by investigation, he will be able to understand and comprehend the matters of the world easily. Next, his will must be sincere. As he is a superior man, he should be able to see things clearly and making his will sincere is but a way to do that. From here on, his mind will also be set rightly and correct. He does not let his happiness and sadness govern him. With a correct mind, his actions will also be correct. 

From cultivating himself, he will begin to cultivate his family. For he is filial and hold high respect for his brothers, he makes sure that they are cultivated rightly towards the Tao. From hereon, the superior man can finally emerge outside the borders of his family to the state. Until he reaches the realm of a Tao-centered philosopher-king where he rules by and with the virtues that he was able to develop. 

*****

The Nature of Opposites

老子

三

~How does Lao Tzu see the nature of opposites? What is the natural relationship between them? What is their natural movement?

~How can Lao Tzu avoid the critique that he violates the principle of non-contradiction here?

*****

Everyday we are faced with decisions. Decisions that usually come in twos. Yes or No. Black or White. Agree or Disagree. And in between comes our feelings, feelings that can be described in words that are completely opposed to one another. You feel pain. You feel pleasure. Pain is the absence of pleasure. Pleasure is the absence of pain. You are happy therefore you are not sad. You are sad so that means that you are not happy. But really, which is which? Aren’t they all just two sides of the same coin?

Sun, 2009 

(as cited in Lao Tzu, 1954)

All things carry Yin and hold Yang, with the interacting energy to balance the relationship… Namely the paradigm of the unity of opposites operates in both the natural world and human domain. It includes the oneness of feminine and masculine forces, internal and external, water and fire, night and day, passive and active, as well as receiving and approaching. It indicates that all apparently separate or opposite systems are part of the whole universe and are governed by the same oneness or Tao…

Yin or Yang? Or probably, it’s more correct to say Yin and Yang. Two different things with different functions. Opposite extremes. But still, they complement each other. They are one of the same, each one as a part of a whole just as birth implies death and death implies birth. Life needs death, otherwise how can life become life? Just as death needs life for how can there be death if there is no life? Separating life from death is harmful, as it goes against nature.

Chuang Tzu Book 

(Fung, 1947)

There is birth, there is death; there is issuing forth, there is entering; and that which one passes bin entering in and issuing forth is the Gate of Heaven. The Gate of Heaven is non-beings and all things emerge from non-being.

Things come in circles just as after night there is day and after day there is night. A child is born and later on he will die and the same goes for the animal and the plants around him. Everything that begins will surely come to an end, all in their own time. This is how it was, how it is, and how it will always be. The concept of being and non-being is crucial in Taoism as they both lie underneath all things. The Unity of Opposites maintains that those things that seem against one another are actually deeply united. Suppose that in the dead of the night you got home from a party and in that party, all kinds of noises where there, loud and deafening. As soon as you close your bedroom door you are faced with stillness and the lack of noise and so you say that silence is he absence of noise but then as you begin to listen closely you realise that silence is actually something that you can hear and you are surprised that the more you listen to that absence of sound, the more you realise that it is actually deafening. Because of these contradicting statements are first creates chaos but out from this chaos comes balance or harmony. Therefore everything must constantly be in motion against it each other in a circle to arrive at an equilibrium just as the wheel aways turn. For someone who is in line with the Tao, he who possess more should give away to those who have less because nature is the same. Same can be said about the art of Tai Chai. At first glance, you will see the person performing the art as very graceful, soft and gentle, but inside all forms of pressure are there to keep the balance and control the body movements. It takes years and years of mastery for the art to appear natural and when it does, one might say that the person performing is doing it as if he merely taking a walk or dancing to the rhythm of his own body without any difficulty or without breaking a sweat. 

*****

Harmfulness of Knowledge and Desire

老子

二

~What does Lao Tzu mean by the harmfulness of knowledge and desires? What does he mean by knowledge and desire? Why does he consider them harmful?

~Is his analysis convincing? Is it valid?

*****

Factual knowledge, according to Rosen (2000), is dependent upon the individual’s own sense perfection, noting that “sensory apparatus differs from species to species”. It would appear, on first impressions, that Lao Tzu appears to take knowledge as something that is not good. However, what exactly is knowledge for him? How did he perceive it to be, that it made him frown upon it? Some people believes that by knowledge, Lao Tzu meant tools, tools that can either be used to do good or bad depending on the person “wielding” the tool. In addition to this, the tool is also limited. Like the tool, with both its good use and bad use, most things come in pairs— synonyms and antonyms, friends and enemies, positive and negative, and so on and so forth. Further into this, our own attitude towards things is greatly influenced by how we attribute to it. If I see something that I deem beautiful then I see another thing, my impulse would be to compare the two and choose that which is what I deem beautiful and what not. But this is only because this is what I think. It is, for me, but it may not be this way to you. And really, who are we to judge? 

Now Lao Tzu warns us about the five colours, five tones, five flavours, and about racing and hurting. These three categories with five different things has been interpreted as symbolic— the five colours in the Chinese tradition, the five Classical tones in a Classical Chinese music scale, and the five flavours. And Lao Tzu meant good in his warning, otherwise this things will lead us astray. “Too little of something is bad”, is what we always hear, “too much of something is not good”. So moderation is the key. Eat too little and you starve. Eat to much and your body will suffer. Eat normally is what is natural. Each and everyday we are always challenged by this problem. There are a lot of pretty things in the world and like a dragon drawn to shiny things, we are easily tempted and we forget. We give in to our desires and we overwork ourselves. We go loca over something— we go mad. 

And if we give in to our desire, or should I say, if we allow our desires to corrupt us, then shame on us. This, at least for me, can be easily explained in the context of drug addiction. The first try will bring you to a whole new world, a world full of wonder and everything good. You will begin to feel wonderful for everything around you becomes pleasant, and this sense of high inside you makes it all the more better until the fall. So to stop this fall from seeping in, you will then take another and another and another and another until it all feels better. But you will never be satisfied. You will never be contended because with greed, nothing is always enough. The more you take it, the more you need to increase the dose but nobody warned you: the higher you fly up in the sky, the lower you’ll fall down in the pits of the earth. Letting your desire sweep you away like a current instead of letting the Tao guide you along the way has a huge difference. With the Tao, you know you are safe, you know you are you, you know that you are enough, and most especially, you know where you’ll be heading to. With your desire, well let’s just say that you’re in for a surprise. 

The Dog and His Bone, Aesop’s Fables

A hound dog found a bone and held it tightly in his mouth. He growled and scowled at anyone who attempted to take it away. Off into the woods he went to bury his prize.

When he came to a stream, he trotted over the footbridge and happened to glance into the water. He saw his own reflection. Thinking it was another dog with a bigger bone, he growled and scowled at it. The reflection growled and scowled back.

"I'll get THAT bone too," thought the greedy dog, and he snapped his sharp teeth at the image in the water.

Alas, his own big bone fell with a splash, out of sight, the moment he opened his mouth to bite!

*****

The Absence of Natural Harmony

老子

一

~What does Lao Tau mean by disharmony? Why does he consider it the main philosophical problem?

~Why does he identify the root cause of this problem with the absence of the Way in the world? What does he mean by such absence?

*****

Kohn and LaFargue, 1998

Social disharmony (and political disorder) are therefore but symptoms of the same disease which disrupts the “virtue” of Tao.

Everything can can be traced back to the Tao. Everything revolves around the Tao. Everything is all about the Tao, that it’s decline would gradually result in hypocrisy, and familial and state disharmony (Tao Te Ching, 18). Extensively, its fall would then lead to the rise of virtues that would then fall, too, and its fall would lead then to the rise of humanity and so on and so forth, until it ends at the beginning of disorder (Tao Te Ching, 24). The Tao, according to Chan (1963), “is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course. Those who live with the Tao and live their lives still aiming for the Tao are those who are extra careful with their ways because Tao is something that is to be perfected and therefore requires practice. Disharmony, in all its forms and justifications, is but the beginning of the declination of the Tao and at the same time, it is the result of its decline. 

The Tao is lost when people begin to place strong attachment in material things and superficial affluence. Taking either or both of this two roads are what pulls them away from where the Tao is. Such can be seen in Pearl Buck’s The Good Earth. The story entered around Wang Lung and the generation of the family that he created. His difficult and laborious life pushed him to work hard until he was able to buy enough land and emerge from poverty but this supposedly good turn of event led him to a life of regret. The education and the lavish life that he was able to give to his sons and his family had not been enough to pay for everything that he had went through. His money got into his head that it made him forget how life should really be. Money and property became the root of the discord that pushed his sons toward different directions and away from him, away from the life that he wished they would live. Kaltenmark (1969) provided that all men must design themselves on natural harmony because through this, he will be able to achieve peace that is the result of men’s lack of material desires. By doing so, he does not only achieve piece but he also goes back to nature and back to the Tao. 

Humbleness is also set on the Tao. Even if already virtuous, a truly virtuous man is one who does not go around and boast it to everyone. Additionally, a simple life could not kill anyone. In fact, it expresses nature and life itself as something that is pure and keeps everyone away from disharmony. Take for example the story Xixo in The Gods Must Be Crazy. The appearance of an empty Coca-Cola bottle in the life of his tribe brought forth chaos and disharmony. The story, of course, can be viewed in different perspectives but the stress on the attachment to such worldly things is a lens that echoes the teachings of the Tao Te Ching. When the Tao prevails in the world, everything is rich and green. When it does not, there is war and war is one of the many things that Lao Tau frowns upon (Tao Te Ching, 46). The Tao wants us to remember that if a man rises above in the material world, there will be bad consequences at the expense of others.

Tao Te Ching, 75

It is only those who do not seek after life that excel in making life valuable.  

*****

The Chun-tzu as Philosopher-King

二十二

~What is a philosopher-king (or sage-emperor)?

~What role does the ruler play in a state?

~Why does Confucius argue that the ruler must be a chun-tzu? What is the difference between the ruler who is a chun-tzu and one who is not?

*****

Fung, 1947

“The man who has become really and truly a jen man is the sage, and the same is one body with Heaven and Earth and all things…”

The highest position that one can achieve in the society, according to Fung Yu-Lan (1947), is that of a political leader. What’s even more higher than that is other than being a statesman, he is also a sage— a person, as the parent of the people, who rules with the virtue and wisdom of a sage and who has the power and will of a king: …for in the Confucian system, the sage should be a ruler and the ruler should be a sage (Chan, 1963, p. 45).  He is one who gives his all to secure the land and its inhabitants while at the same time maintaining peace throughout the society. He does not neglect their needs and does well in educating them while keeping himself in check knowing that he is the role model of the people. 

Analects 16:8

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man stands in awe of three things. He stands in awe of the Mandate of Heaven; he stands in awe of great men; and he stands in awe of the words of the sages. The inferior man is ignorant of the Mandate of Heaven and does not stand in awe of it. He is disrespectful to great men and is contemptuous toward the words of the sages.’”

Analects 16:8 does not only describe the qualities of a sage-king but also defines him by comparing him to the inferior man who does not clearly have the qualifications of a superior man and a ruler. The principle of “sageliness within and kingliness without” is deeply tied in the Confucian teachings when one talks about the exemplary man. This principle is the very essence, however entered entirely on the chun-tzu, of a perfect government with a perfect ruler, a sage yet an emperor, and the perfect people who are loyal and respectful: …in his inner sageliness, he accomplishes spiritual cultivation; in his kingliness without, he functions in society. It is not necessary that the sage should be the actual head of the government… The [principle] means only that he who has the noblest spirit should, theoretically, be a king. As to whether he actually has or has not the chance of being king, that is immaterial (Fung, 1948, p. 8). Since the ruler is the model of the people, it is very important that he should have the virtues and the characteristics of a superior man. He adheres to the Tao and maintains the Confucian virtue of righteousness, filial piety, benevolence, etc. Such virtuous ruler would automatically win the hearts of the people and they will also be inspired to follow his way. 

If man can be perfected, then the state, by man’s desire, can also be perfected. A strong-willed ruler who sets his mind on the Way and embodies the Confucian virtue would be an ideal parent of the state. A cultivated ruler would cause a domino effect, influencing and inspiring the people with his goodness and in return he receives the blessings of Heaven. 

Chan, 1963

(The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu)

"In tranquility he becomes a sage, and in activity he becomes a king."

“The admirable, amiable prince [Shun] displayed conspicuously his excellent virtue. He put his people and his officers in concord. And he received his emolument from Heaven. It protected him, assisted him, and appointed him king. And Heaven’s blessing came again and again.”

*****

哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1D

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

D. in the way he lays out the steps of self-cultivation?

The elevation of man, for Confucius is approached with a process. A process that, when achieved, justifies the footing of man in the society. In The Great Learning, Confucius revealed the steps for the self-cultivation of man that starts with the individual himself and ends in the expanse of the world—when things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will is sincere, the mind is rectified; when the mind is rectified, the personal life is cultivated; when the personal life is cultivated, the family will be regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order; and when the state is in order, there will be peace throughout the world (Chan, 1963, p. 86-87). Confucius deemed that the cultivation of man is important. A man without character and virtue and does not strive to “renovate” himself is not a superior man. 

The first step, for Confucius, lies in the investigation of things. Failure to do so would prevent one form extending his knowledge and in turn prevents him from ever becoming a worthy man. In order to fully cultivate oneself, Confucius puts forwards that, before anythings else, things must be investigated. When things are investigated, one will know and understand the principle of things and the nature of things. Investigation of things pushes one to fully understand his function in society and how he should live his life. Investigation of things would allow man to discover the meaning of life and it will make him understand why he should strive to become a superior man. Man’s knowledge, according to Chu Hsi, is imperfect because man had failed to investigate things.

Next comes the extension of knowledge or learning. Confucius deemed that knowing the Tao is in itself learning. For him, learning is a value and should not be acquired for reasons of selfishness. Interest in the arts and literature expresses learning and he who uses his education as his foundation in making his life morally good is the right way to go. For Confucius, learning also means that if one makes a mistake, he should act upon it to correct and learn from the mistake that he made. He knows where he stand and does not act as if he knows any better when in fact he does not. Learning, for Confucius, is not without thinking and because he is thinking, he is careful in his speech and he is careful in following the Way and the rules of propriety. He learns for the sake of learning and for the sake of humanity. 

Making the will sincere follows next after things have been investigated and knowledge has been extended. The Great Learning provided making the will sincere means that one should not allow self-deception. Even in the confines of his own private quarters, the superior man should take great care of his thoughts, words, and deeds. A man with a sincere will is a genuine man who serves his purpose for the benefit of his family and for the benefit of his neighbours. By making his will sincere, the man, for Confucius, would allow him to maintain a pure heart that will show externally. For the Master, sincerity also manifests itself in the actions of the superior man and is one of the many steps in self-cultivation.

Lastly, when things have been investigated, when knowledge has been extended, and the will made sincere, the mind needs to be rectified for the completion of man’s self-cultivation. For Confucius, the mind need to be correct at all cost. He should not let fear or anger get the best of him and ruin his character as a superior man. To discipline his thoughts and his actions, the superior man must do so by rectifying his mind and keeping it control without letting him emotions get the best of him. He should not dwell in negativity and drown himself in extreme positivity. The cultivation of the person lies in being able to achieve a correct mind— a mind that has fully investigated things and have acquired knowledge, a will that is sincere and a mind that is rectified. For Confucius, a man with a rectified mind will do so well in making decisions, may he be a common man or a ruler. He strives to put things correctly where they are and makes sure that everything is in accordance to harmony. Having a rectified mind is having a moral mind. 

*****

Regulation by Virtue, Not Law or Force

二十一

~What does Confucius mean by regulation of the state by means of virtue? How is such a state regulated?

~What is the difference between regulation through virtue and regulation through either law or force? Why does he insist on the use of virtue, not law or force?

*****

Yao, 2000

The goal [of order and peace] cannot be achieved by arms, nor by power or law, but only by moral strength and moral virtues.”

Man is born with uprightness. Indeed, it is so but being born with such uprightness does not guarantee the agent will die with uprightness just as he was born with it. As man’s nature is good and upright, he has the capacity to be virtuous and remain virtuous in the entire course of his life. Why virtue? Why is it important?

The Confucian tradition emphasises the Way- the moral way. The teachings of the Master is governed by virtues, virtues that help cultivate a man into a superior man and make him into a man worthy of governing a state. These [Confucian] virtues allow man to develop himself into a superior man. Why? Because virtues are right. Right in the sense that they are correct, proper, and they are the central point of values. Vices, as opposed to virtue, is taken as an excess or the lack of virtues. 

de Bary, 2009

“…virtue (te) is a traditional concept for qualities that manifest themselves in benefits to others, but the effect on others most crucial for Confucius is the appeal to their self-respect rather than to fear…”

There is a black and white distinction between Confucius’ regulation by virtue and the Legalists’ concept of virtue. For the latter, the concept of virtue in its true sense is denied and it is instead equated with the concept of reward/reinforcement-punishment system (Operant Conditioning, Skinner) or “the two handles of the ruler”: rewards are there for those who obey the law and punishments are to be imposed on those who violate others (Chan, 1948, p. 225) and where law and statecraft are of utmost importance to the ruler. The Legalists’ view Confucianism as idealistic, “bookish and impractical” in its political views and ideas. Confucius, on the other hand, places the importance of virtue in its true sense (Chan, 1963) and that the masses should be governed by li and morality and frowns upon the Legalists’ realistic views, accusing them as “mean and vulgar” (Fung,1948).

Redse, 2015

“Confucius preferred personally performed ritual actions in accordance with the basic virtues, regulated by a need for “face" (dignity) and harmony, rather than the application of fixed laws with penal regulations and punishments. For this reason he was concerned with cultivating a sense of shame awareness in people as a control power, rather than recommending control by means of penal regulations… (Analects 2:3)”

The Great Learning stressed on the need to regulate the family before being able to successfully regulate the state. As the family is the foundation of a community, regulating it would entail the extension of a regulated state. The virtue of the ruler must centre itself on filial piety and the relationship between the ruler and his subordinates. A ruler should love his people and be sensitive towards their needs: If he has virtue, he will have the people with him… Virtue is the root, while wealth is the branch (The Great Learning, 10). A ruler with a virtue is not one who indulges himself in luxury while his people are suffering. He is not one who exploits the fruits of his people’s labor for his own selfish desires. On the other hand, one who makes sure that his people have enough food to eat, does not impose heavy labor among the workers of the society, and ensures that there is security and peace throughout the land a virtuous ruler worthy of his position to govern. However, Zhang (2000), noted another importance in the system: education. A ruler must also concern himself with the education of the people— first is to establish social moralities that guide mass conduct, and second is to check the evildoings and reduce penalties.  

Doctrine of the Mean, 20

…When the right principles of man operate, the growth of good government is rapid, and when the right principles of soil operate, the growth of vegetables is rapid… Therefore the conduct of government depends upon the men. The right men are obtained by the ruler’s personal character. The cultivation of the person is to be done through the Way, and the cultivation of the Way is to be done through humanity…”

*****

The State as a Big Family

二十

~What is the extent of the state for Confucius? What is its difference from the family?

~Why does Confucius consider the state as a big family? What elements of the family must the state imitate?

~What does Confucius mean when he considers the ruler as the parent of the people? In what ways is the ruler like the parent in a family?

*****

In the previous entry, The Family as the Basic Social Unit, the family was introduced in a broad sense that it included with it the state with the ruler as the father of the people and that the state was designed in a way that it reflects the “nation-family” form of government. The chapter nine of The Great Learning opened with the idea that the need to regulate the family is a first before being able to govern the state. That is, and asking the question of, “how can one govern or rule a state when he cannot even supervise the affairs of his family?”: 

“There is no one who cannot teach his own family and yet can teach others. Therefore the superior man (ruler) without going beyond his family, can bring education into the completion in the whole state.”

Having said this, now that the superior man has finally cultivated himself and in turn was able to regulate his own family, we now turn into the outside layer: the state or the family state. To be a ruler means to govern but that is only one side of the coin. To be a ruler means that one should also be of service to his people, equally. The Great Learning emphasises the qualities of what it takes to be a ruler— of how it is to become a parent of the people. Like a family, a ruler should know how to treat the elders with respect and treat the youth and those without means in a good and right manner. As he is the parent of the people, he then becomes the role model of his people. If his conduct towards the young and the old are right, then the people shall too.

Analect 13:6

“Confucius said, ‘If a ruler sets himself right, he will be followed without his command. If he does not set himself right, even his commands will not be obeyed.’”

A good ruler is also one who is perfectly in tune with his people. Just as a father who knows when his son is happy or sad, a ruler should also know his people in this sense. Knowing the right time to intervene when your child is in trouble and knowing when to just stand on the sidelines while still supporting him defines a good parent who knows his child. Knowing your people will help you in making the right decision in terms of what is good for them and what is not, understood already that the ruler is a superior man. If such bad things within the state already exist, the ruler should do well in either eliminating or correcting them. He should be sensitive to the needs of his people and rules with the virtue that to govern is to rectify (Analect 12:17). Such superior ruler will, in turn, earn the support and love of his people wholeheartedly. 

Schuman, 2015

“In Confucian thinking, then, the state became an enlarged photocopy of the family. If the state operated the same was a family did, good government would be achieved and order maintained in society. The Great Learning…states simply that “from the loving example of one family a whole state becomes loving.” At the top of the family stood a commanding yet benevolent father, controlling yet caring for his children; at the top of the nation stood the emperor, enjoying unrivalled authority over the people, yet committed to serving the best interests of the common man…”

The chapter ten of The Great Learning greatly expounds on the ideal characteristic of a superior man as the ruler of the state. As a ruler is the model of everyone, he should do good deeds behind and outside doors. As he both a superior man and a ruler, he takes care of his own attitude and knows that Heaven will do justice to him if he is unjust. He is one who brings and keep justice and peace throughout the community (Analect 14:45) and worries when security and peace are lacking:

Analect 16:1

“Confucius said, ‘…I have heard that those who administer a state or a family do not work about there being too few people, but worry about unequal distribution of wealth. They do not worry about poverty, but worry about the lack of security and peace on the part of the people. For when wealth is equally distributed, there will not be poverty; when there is harmony, there will be no problem of there being too few people; and when there are security and peace, there will be no danger to the state…’”

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P.S. -I think this is interesting but it is beyond me: https://fractalontology.wordpress.com/2008/10/09/family-contra-the-state-problematizing-aristotle-and-confucius/

The Family as the Basic Social Unit

十九

~What is the extent of the family that Confucius considers as the basic social unit? What are the basic relations within this family?

~Why does Confucius consider the family as the basic social unit within which the chun-tzu must begin to operate?

~What role must the chun-tzu play within the family? How will the chun-tzu play his role within the family? What must the chun-tzu aim for as he operates within the family?

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The Godfather, Mario Puzo

“…and if I ever need any guidance, who’s a better consiglieri than my father?”

The superior man, who have finally cultivated himself through investigating things, therefore extending his knowledge, making his will sincere, and rectification of his knowledge can now finally move on to the next step: his family. A family, in the Confucian teachings, is considered as the basic and primary unit of society. It is where a child grows up to a man, and finally to a superior man and so on and so forth for his sons and their sons and to the rest of the future generation. The family is where all relationship starts and thus, a son’s relationship with his family is but fundamental. This, in turn, points out that filial piety is considered as one of the important virtues in the Confucian teachings. 

Introduction to Confucian Thought, n.d.

“In traditional China it was assumed by adherents of all schools of thought that government would be monarchical and that the state had its model in the family. The ruler was understood to be at once the Son of Heaven, and the father of the people, ruling under the Mandate of Heaven… Even today, under a different radically form of government, the Chinese term for state is “guo-jia” or “nation-family”, suggesting the survival of the idea of this paternal and consensual relationship…”

Love, sensitivity and consideration for each other, and respect are the conditions to establish a good Confucian family. Father and son should have a loving and reverential relationship with one another. Elder brother and younger brother should treat each other with gentleness and respect. The relationship between a husband and a wife should be good and attentive. A friend to a friend should be humble in all sense and from a ruler to a subject, a relationship where one puts great importance to loyalty is how to make it (“Oriental Philosophy: Main Concepts of Confucianism,” n.d.). The threefold relationship between father and son, husband and wife, brother and brother are genuine in its “familial” sense but the two, ruler and subject and friend and friend, can however be enclosed in the scope (Fung, 1948). When a father is a cultivated man, his son should follow his way. He must be respectful to him and do well in honouring him even until after his death. This kind of dedication to his family is what will make him a cultivated man like his father.

Doctrine of the Mean, 19

“Men of filial piety are those who skilfully carry out the wishes of their forefathers and skilfully carry forwards their undertakings.”

The Great Learning, 8

“Hence it is said, “People do not know the faults of their sons and do not know the bigness of their seedlings.” This is what is meant by saying that if the personal life is not cultivated, one cannot regulate his family.”

The disposition of the family is therefore dependent on the character of the people that makes up that family. If the son is brought up well in a family of superior character, then this trait will show once he becomes a man himself. By being a cultivated person, he in turn will bring this to the society and until he has a family of his own. But if a son grows up in a family with an inferior man for a father, then what goodness can he pass down to the society and his sons? A superior man rectifies the ways of his sons when he is not in accordance with what is moral and what is proper and right in line with the views of the society: “Our family relationship is projected into the life of the community and the world” (Zukeran, 2001). Keeping the family away from shame is also a way to regulate the family. 

Yao, 2000

“As the family is the basic unit of human community, harmonious family relationships are believed to be crucial for a harmonious society and a peaceful state… For those who are of the ruling class, their virtues in family affairs are even more significant, because it is believed that when these people feel profound affection for their parents, the common people will naturally be humane…”

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Rectification of the Mind

十八

~What does Confucius mean by the rectification of names? What is the scope of his rectification? How is this rectification to be accomplished?

~Why is the rectification of names the last step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

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Chang, 2013

“Rectify whatever there is to be rectified about the things, search your own mind, and trust your own intuition which is good by nature.”

In Manuel Dy’s The Confucian Jen, he provided the sequence for the development of the superior man (the eight steps in The Great Learning): when things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will becomes sincere, the mind is rectified; when the personal life is cultivated, the family is regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order; and when the state is in order, there will be peace throughout the world. Therefore, in order to become a superior man or a jen man, he must start with himself and he must start it correctly. He should investigate things, seek for and gain the knowledge, do well in making his will sincere, and rectify his mind. By doing so, he cultivates himself and when cultivated, he helps his family, his state, and the world. The four steps for the development of the superior man must be accomplished before he can fully cultivate himself. 

A person with a rectified mind will not so easily be swayed. The human mind, taking the definition of Tucker (1989), refers to the physical form of the senses responding to what they desire. An untamed mind is often equated to a wild horse- where one’s senses go on a rampage, driving the mind in a chaotic state and making it lose all its control over the body, the heart, and the mind. An untamed mind will but generate bad decisions and bad actions that in turn result in a bad outcome. The mind becomes irrational and illogical. To avoid such mishap, one must rectify his mind so as to correct his ways and his thoughts. The same thing also goes to a person with an unbalanced way of thinking. Dwelling only in negative thoughts would inevitably sour the mood of the person and this in turn will make him ill towards others. Too much confidence in the mind will also cause one to overlook things and his carelessness will result in his own downfall. Chapter 7 of The Great Learning have also described a person’s uncertified state of mind. 

de Bary, 2013

Zhen Zhangfang, Essay on the Learning of the Emperors

“What is called ‘cultivation of the person’ lies in rectifying one’s mind.’ If the person is moved by passion, he will not achieve correctness; if he is moved by fondness for something, he will not achieve correctness; if he is moved by sorrow and distress, he will not achieve correctness.”

Chang, 2013

“So, we as human beings have to be sincere and moving. Where are we moving to? To a better status, to make ourselves better human beings. In others words, we must give our mind a new direction; we must rectify our mind.”

Zheng Shen, one of Confucius’ disciples, found that in order for one to put his mind to a good use, all he needs to do is to rectify it, “four emotions usually exercise bad influences on the mind: anger, fear, exhilaration, and worry. The way to ‘rectify’ one’s mind is to get rid of these four emotions” (Chang, 2013). Chen Te-hsiu, a major Neo-Confucian scholar and an official in the late Sung dynasty, also echoed the same thoughts regarding the rectification of the mind. He strongly believes that correcting the mind is the very foundation of self-cultivation, which is  the basis for moral rulership (Taylor & Choy, 2005). With a rectified mind, one can do well in discerning his thoughts from right and wrong. One can discipline his thoughts and his actions. He does not put on airs and walks the talk. A rectified mind also takes note with names and their actualities. As he is a careful man, he makes sure that names are in accordance with their purpose and strives hard to correct and do something about the ranks, duties, and functions that are out of place. If we allow our mind to do as it please, then all will end in disharmony. Our mind lies in the “control room” of our physical body. Regulating our desires and keeping our emotions from bursting out is a good way keeping ourselves from falling all over the place or from straying away from the path. Allowing our desire for material things is also not the way to go. If we keep our senses and our thoughts in check and not allow one to dominate over the rest is a way to rectify the mind. 

Tucker, 1989

“…if we want to rectify the mind-and-heart, we must first make our will sincere. If we are already sincere in loving good and disliking evil, rectifying the mind-and-heart should be easy. Rectification means that the seven emotions of happiness, anger, sadness, enjoyment, love, hate, and desire which arise in the mind-and-heart are in correct measure with neither excess of deficiency. This means being happy when we should be happy, but not being excessive in that happiness; being angry when we should be angry,but not being excessive in anger. Other emotions should also be expressed in a similar manner. If the seven emotions are balanced with either excess nor deficiency, we will not be swayed within the heart and there will always be harmony. This is rectifying the mind-and-heart.”

As the mind is the very foundation of the self (Dietz, 2010), rectification of the mind would mean cleansing away prejudices, false orientations, and wrong perceptions of the self. Cleansing the thoughts of such things, we can see things more clearly- we can see them as they are and with this, our actions will be in accordance to harmony and how we associate with others would be correct. And because prior to this that we have already investigated things, extended our knowledge, and made our wills sincere, we can correct our minds with full knowledge of doing so, correctly and sincerely. 

Dietz, 2010

“…With a rectified mind, superior people cultivate every aspect of their lives to better honour and benefit all things. Superior people use the self to protect and manifest their understanding. Superior people do not live carelessly. They live to nourish their mind and to act to the great benefit of the world…”

Chang, 2013

Wang Shou-ren: [the mind] can also be “reason itself". He believed that no reason existed outside the mind; and no thing existed outside the mind. The mind is reason because it knows how to arrange things. The mind is also virtue, because it has compassion (ren) and the ability to distinguish right from wrong. All a man needs to do, in order to find a right answer to a question, is to search his own mind…

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Making the Will Sincere

十七

~What does Confucius mean by making the will sincere? How does one make the will sincere? How does one know that the will is already sincere?

~Why is the task of making the will sincere the third step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

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Chang, 2013

“A Confucianist starts his moral self-cultivation with sincerity. His teacher tells him to be sincere first. Without sincerity, nothing can happen to him.”

“Have a sincere will!” his teacher orders him. “With a sincere will, you may have your mind rectified, oriented to the right direction.”

Sincerity, according to the Oxford dictionary, is taken as an emotion that is free from pretences or deceit. The Great Learning (ch.6) defined “making the will sincere” as allowing no self-deception.  Sincerity has always been vital for maintaining a genuine relationship with one’s friends, family, and acquaintances. Oftentimes, this deceit is not only directed to others but also to ourselves. Making the will sincere is not only limited to human relations. It can extend to one’s actions and how one goes about his everyday life. One may only be a simple baker but if he is sincere in his work and does it well with dedication, then there is genuineness in his efforts and actions. His actions of sincerity must be consistent: whether in dealing with a patron or a rich customer to his regular ones and behind closed doors. For this kind of man, success is waiting for him. The Filipino sense of “pakikipagkapwa” connotes a positive attitude towards others but the sincerity of that pakikipagkapwa must always be checked. Is our being sincere in its purest sense? Or is there any underlying motive behind our supposed to be sincere actions?

Chan, 1963

“Sincerity is not just a state of mind, but an active force that is always transforming things and completing things, and drawing man and Heaven together in the same current… If sincerity is to be true, it must involve strenuous effort at learning and earnest effort at practice… Sincerity is to be tested in ordinary words and ordinary deeds and its truth is understandable to the ordinary man.”

Berthrong & Berthrong, 2014

“Only with a sincere will focused on a reverence for the Way of the sages and worthies could the student make progress in self-cultivation.”

Sincerity comes in when one would begin to extend his knowledge. By doing so, he should start by investigating things. Now that things have been investigated, his knowledge has become extensive, making his thoughts sincere. Additionally, he who desires to correct and rectify his mind must first take a step to make his will sincere (Chan, 1963). To show one’s sincerity, correcting and refining one’s speech is a step. By doing this, one will not develop the habit of lying. 

Chang, 2013

“To improve one’s personality, three things must be done: enthusiastic learning, vigorous action, and avoidance of shame. These three things can only be done with a sincere will. When they are done, one is near to the three principal virtues in the world: wisdom, jen, and courage.”

Characteristic to the superior man is that he establishes himself and also wishes to establishes others (Analect 6:28). The same is true in sincerity. By being sincere, one will cause the things around him to go and mature (Chang, 2013). A person of sincere will, devoid of any pretence, will know how to examine himself without bias. Sincerity also has something to do with goodness and enlightenment. As we are born good, it would do well if we can retain that goodness in us as we grow, by doing so, one also keeps the virtue of sincerity by his side. Making the will sincere has something to do with dedication. Confucius always iterates that one needs to “set his will on the way”. One can do so by accepting and practicing the virtues of righteousness, benevolence, propriety, etc. When these actions of righteousness and benevolence are done with sincerity, then it is the Way.  

Chang, 2013

Doctrine of the Mean (20-25)

“Sincerity is Heaven’s way; to be sincere is man’s way… A sincere man sees things clearly. Conversely, when a man can see things clearly, he will want to be sincere without being told so… Sincerity is the beginning and the end of all things… A sincere man knows what has happened and what is going to happen… He can grasp what is important in the world and deal with its crucial problems… A great man is a sincere man… A sage is a man whose sincerity has reached a height as to be able to transform the world.”

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Learning

十六

~What does Confucius mean by learning? How is this different from the investigation of things? How is learning to be accomplished?

~Why does Confucius consider learning as the second step in the development of the superior man? What does it contribute to the development of his character?

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Tusculan Disputation, Cicero

Taken from The Consolations of Philosophy (de Botton, 2000)

“…scholarship is the means of making known to us, while still in this world, the infinity or matter, the immense grandeur of Nature, the heavens, the lands and the seas. Scholarship has taught us piety, moderation, greatness of heart; it snatches our souls from darkness and shows them all things, the high and the low, the first, the last and everything in between; scholarship furnishes us with the means of living well and happily; it teaches us how to spend our lives without discontent and without vexation.”

Oftentimes, we would hear people say that learning is a process. Modern interpretation and definition of learning entails reflection, thinking, application, and experiencing. Some would agree that this is so while others would not and so instead they would provide a counterargument or other designs for such. The social sciences would provide us with an extensive analysis of how learning occurs and of how learning takes place in the person’s cognitive area. Can a mere repetition of something be considered as learning? How about mastery or the degree of mastery of a person? When can we confidently say that we have learned something?

Chan, 1963

“…To Wang Su, hsi (to learn) means to recite a lesson repeatedly. To Chu Hsi, however, hsi means to follow the examples of those who are first to understand, and therefore it does not mean recitation but practice… Ch’ing scholars emphasised practical experience. In this case, hsi to them means both to repeat and to practice… Generally speaking, the dominant spirit of Confucian teaching is the equal emphasis on knowledge and action…”

What learning is varies from person to person. For Confucius, his idea of learning is greatly set on the Tao (Fung, 1947). For a college student, however, learning could mean being able to answer the questions on his examination or knowing what to do during a practical application examination. The mere accumulation of trivias or knowing a lot of jokes can be considered as learning. So on and so forth. The value that you place, however, on what you have learned creates a significant meaning of it to your life. Your intentions are also to be considered. If you set your mind on learning, only to put yourself up the pedestal and to put others below you (horizontal extravagance, Ricoeur), may not be as meaningful as learning for the sake of learning. A person may be considered high in position because of his wisdom but if his character dictates a starved personality, then a kind beggar who does not know how to read yet who is able to tell the time by the position of the sun may be a better person than him. What have you done with what you have learned?

Analect 1:14

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man does not seek fulfillment of his appetite nor comfort in his lodging. He is diligent in his duties and careful in his speech. He associates with men of moral principles and thereby realises himself. Such a person may be said to love learning.’”

In another note, we can also take learning and experiencing as one. Suppose that on your way home a book by the display window of a shop has caught your attention. Checking it out, it drew you in and you begin to want the book. You check the price and then your allowance. Seeing that you have money, you decided to buy the book even if it would mean limiting your budget for the week. Suppose something happened within that week, something that you need to pay a certain amount. Then you begin to think. If you did not buy the book you could pay and not feel bad about it and you didn’t have to limit your food budget. The next time that it happens to you, you now have two choices. Either you wait and save extra money to be able to buy what you want or buy it right away regardless of the consequences that you have experienced. Learning from your mistake is one thing but correcting your mistake is another: you have learned not to do it again. Whatever happened before, you charge it as a learning experience: …he who thinks but does not learn is in danger (Analect 2:15). What is the end product of what you have learned?

Analect 7:27

“Confucius said, ‘There are those who act without knowing. But I am not one of them. To hear much and select what is good and follow it, to see much and remember it, is the second type of knowledge.’”

Learning can take on many forms. Knowledge, skills, and abilities are but of the many things that can be learned. It can also evolve and even develop into something concrete, something utilitarian. Making use of what you have learned is learning in itself.

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哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1C

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

C. in the way he characterises the ideal human being?

The Confucian belief system can be seen as both diverse and practical. Diverse, because it does not only rely on one subject but it also consider others like governance, education, rituals, social relations, so on and so forth. Practical, because it requires an individual to actively apply the Confucian beliefs and virtues as it is helpful and no-nonsense for the human society. But within these “categories” lie the exemplary man who exudes goodness and has the capacity and the virtues to lead the and live the right life. 

Wisdom and intelligence, propriety, righteousness, altruism and conscientiousness, filial piety and brotherly respect, goodness, and above all, human-heartedness embodies the ideal human being. The idealised ultimate human being in the Confucian sense exhibits virtues and behaviour that promotes the welfare of the society. Regardless of one’s position in the society, the person who strives hard in order to achieve such virtues above would be the idealised human being for Confucius. 

Starting with his own self, he should be well equipped in the matters of the mind. Wisdom, goodness, and intelligence assumes this department. Knowing oneself and knowing others is but a great step towards the formation of these values. According to Confucius, man is born with uprightness. Indeed, he is. But this does not end here. This natural goodness can be lost if forgotten. This natural goodness of man can disappear if not maintained. Thus, this basic goodness can be preserved through his own efforts to do what is good not only to himself but also to others. By going back to the Analects, one can see that chih and goodness and intelligence of man covers self-preservation and stretches out to education, social relations, and leadership. 

As an individual who promotes the welfare of the society, the ideal human person also takes note of propriety as it establishes harmony (Analect 1:12). Rituals and traditions are of great importance to the ideal man. Li also keeps the ideal man in check as it lists down what should be and what should not be done. With propriety, thing will go amiss and the results would inevitably be the opposite of what an ideal human being is working for. An ideal human person follows the rules of propriety and tradition, that it to say that he is also righteous. And as he is intelligent and endowed with wisdom, he has the capacity to discern what is right from what is wrong. The Confucian Philosophy puts forward that these virtues should be actively practiced. For the ideal man, knowing what is right and wrong is one but it should continue- the ideal man should be able to correct what is wrong. Being learned does not only stop at knowing a lot of things. Being learned means that one can apply his knowledge to anything and that he is able to deliberate his actions and his thoughts. 

An ideal man is also a person for others. As he knows what is right, he acts well with others. Altruism and conscientiousness can be seen as a guide as to how one should associate with the other. He is one who examines himself. “Have I been good today?” “Did I treat my neighbour right?” So on and so forth. In a sense, these questions can be taken in another perspective: “How should I treat my neighbour?” As altruism and conscientiousness go hand in hand, the ideal human being is one who keeps it that way. 

A family completes the community. As such, the characteristic of an ideal human person in the Confucian mode is one who his filial to his family and respectful to his brothers. Obedience and respect to one’s elders and brothers cultivate one’s character that can greatly impact his relations towards other people. Obedience and respect are the proper virtues that one should cultivate because they are right and good. Being respectful to another means that there is no harm in one’s interaction with another. There are the values of altruism and conscientiousness in one’s treatment to his elders and his brothers. 

Like a tree, the values of wisdom, filial piety and brotherly respect, propriety, altruism and conscientiousness, and righteousness, among others, serves as the branches for the ideal human person. Its roots goes deep down into the heart of the Tao and the overall product benefits and helps the society.  

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