Investigation of Things

十五

~What does Confucius mean by the investigation of things? What is the scope of the investigation? How are the things to be investigated?

~Why is the investigation of things the first step in the development of the chun-tzu? What does it contribute to the character of the chun-tzu?

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ko-wu

Hoobler & Hoobler, 2009 

(as cited in Creel’s Chinese Thought: From Confucius to Mao)

“…The reason we cannot be sages or worthy men is that we lack the great strength that is needed for the investigation of things.”

“Knowing” something is never truly enough and the same goes for being able to understand only what is on the surface or getting the gist or the general idea of a certain subject matter. Regarding this as knowledge is the same as accepting what is not true, for this kind of knowledge is not only lacking but also empty. A superior man is one who is unsatisfied with such because for as long as things are not properly investigated, then knowledge will be, as a result, incomplete. Zhu Xi, a Confucian scholar from the Song Dynasty, believes that the investigation of things serves as the very foundation of true knowledge which acts as a support and a motivating factor for self-cultivation. For him, the investigation of things can also mean as the investigation of moral knowledge. According to him, “…we should apply ourselves to [the study of] things so as to gain an exhaustive knowledge of their Li,” or in other words, one should investigate things to discern their defining patterns.

Analect 19:7

“Tsze-hsia said, ‘Mechanics have their shops to dwell in, in order to accomplish their works. The superior man learns, in order to reach to the utmost of his principles.’”

The expansion of knowledge for self-cultivation can also be achieved through the investigation of things. Just as life is a process and just as there is a due process for accomplishing any kind of task, so does when one aspires to go beyond than being just a man or the kind of man that he is at present. Therefore, what constitutes a superior man is his inclination to know the root and his desire to perfect his knowledge. The investigation of things also demands one to admit his foolishness or his ignorance when he is lacking.

Analect 2:17

“Confucius said, ‘Yu, shall I teach you [the way to acquire] new knowledge? To say that you know and say that you do not know when you do not know- that is [the way to acquire] knowledge.’”

Taylor & Choy, 2005

“Investigation of Things is predicated for the School of Principle of the belief that all things possess principle (li). In turn it is the goal of humankind to come to a complete understanding of the nature of Principle, a state that is characterised as sagehood.”

But how does one perfect his knowledge? To this, The Great Learning acts as a guide, a moral guide, for one to cultivate his character into that of a superior man: extension of knowledge consists of the investigation of things… From the king down to the common people, all must regard  the cultivation of the self as the most essential thing. Through learning or investigation of things, one will surely arrive at the core of it all— the principle of things. The importance of being able to understand the principle of things will allow one to fully comprehend how the world works thus, his actions will be in accordance to what should be done and how he will properly perform the act. Therefore, knowing must answer the questions of why, how, and what for. By fulfilling these, one can arrive in the knowledge as how he should exercise it- action. That is to say:

Analect 7:3

“The Master said, ‘the leaving virtue without proper cultivation; the not thoroughly discussing what is learning; not being able to move towards righteousness of which a knowledge is gained; and not being able to change what is not good—these are the things that make me uncomfortable.’”

A superior man with an intelligent mind soaks himself with knowledge that allows his to know what is good and what is right at all occasions, even in moments of haste. Reaching the summit of our knowledge is through the investigation of things. One can know what is right and what is wrong through investigating it. One can know the proper method of doing an activity through investigating it. One can know how to do a ritual properly by investigating how to do it and why it is done as such. Being a learned person makes one a superior man. 

If one studies a number of subjects, he broadens the scope of his mind and his imagination. By studying the arts, he will become well-versed in that area. By studying medicine he will be able to understand the frailty and mortality of man. By studying the things around him, he will understand the world external to him. By studying history and politics he will understand the course of human society and of how it is and should be governed. One should not confine himself only to one subject. Through broadening one’s interest and learning with enthusiasm about the great things about him, he inflates himself— he becomes a bigger man. 

Chai & Chai, 1973

…the extension of knowledge is “knowing the utmost” and “reaching it”. It is extending the intuitive knowledge of our mind…

…”the extension of intuitive knowledge” as not “something illusory, hazy, in a vacuum [devoid of Li], and unreal”; it is rather “something real.”

The Great Learning, 5

Extension of knowledge consists of the investigation of things.

When things are investigated, knowledge is extended.

When knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere.

When the will is sincere, the mind is correct.

When the mind is correct, the self is cultivated.

When the self is cultivated, the clan is harmonised. 

When the clan is harmonised, the country is well governed.

When the country is well governed, there will be peace throughout the land.

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Chih as a Cardinal Virtue

十四

~What does Confucius mean by chih (wisdom)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of chih?

~Why does Confucius identify chih as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~How is this virtue related to jen, yi, and li?

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Analect 2:17

“Confucius said, ‘Yu, shall I teach you [the way to acquire] knowledge? To say that you know when you do know and say that you do not know when you do not know- that is [the way to acquire] knowledge.’”

Chih, for Confucius, is moral wisdom. It is the ability to discern the right from wrong and the good from bad. Chih, however innate (Mencius and Confucius), puts an emphasis on it as a process of experiencing where once is involved in the act of knowing. It is also a partial fulfilment for being a gentleman. It helps one realise what it means to be a gentleman. Chih entails both learning and thinking. It describes one who engages critical thinking and reflecting so as to filter and know the information that he is gaining. 

Bell, 2010

“…Moral wisdom is important in Confucianism, but it is not as important as the ideal of a gentleman. A gentleman is a person who who possesses the ideal virtue of jen (benevolence), which is an all-encompassing virtue, including others like wisdom, respect, faith,… etc. And the essence of this ideal virtue is benevolence or love for fellow humans…”

People tend to rush into things whether it be by their actions of by their words. More often than not, we can sometimes hear others saying that there are instances of action without thought or speaking without thinking which eventually leads them in tight situations. This is the kind of behaviour that we must unlearn. We must also avoid being like a sponge where we absorb everything. Being a filter is better. 

Analect 7:27

“Confucius said, ‘There are those who act without knowing [what is right]. But I am not one of them. To hear much and select what is good and follow it, to see much and remember it, it the second type of knowledge.”

Analect 6:18

“Confucius said, ‘To know it [learning or the Way] is not as good as to live it, and to love it is not as good as to take delight in it.’”

Fung (1947) settled chih as the foundation for one to be able to understand human-heartedness, righteousness, and propriety- a man must have an understanding of jen before he can do jen acts (p.18). In chih’s relation to jen, yi, and li, Fung furthered his discussion by going back to Analect 2:4: …wisdom was understanding in relation to jen, yi, and li… being able to follow rituals would mean that one is right but this is not to say that one is doing the act rightly. One must be able to understand to be able to have a perfect understanding of human-heartedness or righteousness. With wisdom, one ceases to objectify oneself. Acting out jen, yi, and li without chih is empty and meaningless.

Doctrine of the Mean 20

“Some are born with knowledge. Some learn it through study. Some learn it through hard work. But when the knowledge is acquired, it comes to the same thing. Some practice them natural and easily. Some practice them for their advantage. Some practice them with effort and difficulty. But when the achievement is made, it comes to the same thing.”

“Confucius said, ‘Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with visor is akin to humanity, To know to be shameful is akin to courage. He who knows these three things knows how to cultivate his personal life. Knowing how to cultivate his personal life, he knows how to govern other man. And knowing how to govern other men, he knows how to govern the empire, its states, and the families.’”

Confucius went beyond the common meaning of learning. For him, learning is learning the Tao. Learning in the prior would only mean as the expansion of knowledge while the latter would want one to be self-realised. Wisdom or knowledge alone is useless and the same goes for learning without doing without understand what or why are you doing such. For those who are quick to learn may be at an advantage but it they fail to cultivate or use it for humanity then their actions may be deemed as not remarkable. For those who are slow to learn will do so at their own pace and seek the virtue of meekness for them to be able to learn. What it is importance is that one should make use of his wisdom in good relation to those around him- …the man of wisdom cultivates humanity for its advantage (Analect 1:16).

Analect 6:20

“Fan Ch’ih asked about wisdom. Confucius said, ‘Devote yourself earnestly to the duties due to men, and respect spiritual beings (especially ancestors) but keep them at a distance. This may be called wisdom…’”

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Li as a Cardinal Virtue

十三

~What does Confucius mean by li (propriety)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of li?

~Why does Confucius identify li as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~How is this virtue related to jen and yi?

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Analect 10:9

“When his mat was not straight [Confucius] did not sit on it.”

Such is the importance of li or propriety for Confucius that even in the littlest of things, we would insist on the correctness of his actions and of the things around him. Similar to most of Confucius’ virtues, li can mean more than a thing or two. As li’s numerous definitions are tangled in a web together, so does its expanse in the individual and social context. While the li here is taken as propriety, it can also mean ritual action or morals. Li requires one’s active participation for it to be expressed as the activities [rituals] greatly correspond to the promotion of jen. Like the Tao, li teaches one the principles of how to live. If li is followed then the whole of society will work smoothly. 

Analect 1:12

“Yu Tzu said, ‘Among the functions of li the most valuable is that it establishes harmony. The excellence of the ways of ancient kings consists of this. It is the guiding principle of all things great and small. If things go amiss, and you, understanding harmony, try to achieve it without regulating it by the rules of propriety, they will still go amiss.’”

The way to achieve harmony in the society and jen is through going back to li. Constantly, is what Confucius said (Analect 12:1). Sprunger described li as the gentleman’s external expression and jen as what is inside. Thus, if li and jen are both embodied within a person, then he is the end goal of the whole Confucian philosophy: he is a chun tzu (An Introduction to Confucianism, n.d.). Li prescribes the proper etiquettes under any event to a man from the properties of a ceremony (Analect 3:4) to how a ruler and a minister should act and serve (Analect 3:19). It also dictates how filial piety is to be expressed (Analect 2:5), how mournings and sacrifices to one’s ancestors should be done, and how one should conduct himself in a convention. Li is also important in the development of a gentleman. Social harmony can be established as li promotes ethics and proper decorum. Even if it limits one’s actions, it keeps the person in line and guides him how to act rightly so as to avoid disharmony: the noble man who studies culture extensively, and disciplines himself with propriety can keep from error (Analect 6:27).  

Fung, 1976 

(Hsun Tzu)

“…But the world is not so ideal. People must live together, and in order to do so without contention, a millet must be imposed on everyone in the satisfaction of his desires. The function of li is to set this limit. When there are the lu, there is morality. He who acts according to the li acts morally. He who acts against them acts immorally.”

(Confucianism)

“…li is a very comprehensive idea. It can be translates as ceremonies, rituals, or rules of social conduct… The function of li is to regulate. The li provide regulation for the satisfaction of man’s desires. But in the sense of ceremonies and rituals, the lie have another function, that of refining. In this sense, the li give refinement and purification to man’s emotions…”

Acting righteously also denotes that one is acting in accordance to the morals and the societal laws for laws are made to keep peace and eliminate disorder in the society: without propriety and righteousness, there will be rebellion, disorder, and chaos… The sage-kings of antiquity created the rules of propriety and righteousness and instituted laws and systems in order to correct man’s feelings, transform them, and direct them so that they all may become disciplined and conform with the Way (Chan, 1963). 

By following propriety and righteousness, one will grow up straightly and correctly. Such a man will never be swayed. Confucius would bid one to avoid what is opposed to propriety, to turn a deaf ear towards what is contrary to propriety, to speak what is contrary to propriety, and not to make any actions that are opposed to propriety (Analect 12:1). 

Analect 20:3

“Without an acquaintance of the rules of propriety, it is impossible for the character to be established.”

Further in Chan’s A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, he stressed that both righteousness and propriety are attained through hard work. He also extended that since both virtues are not nature to man, they should be sought out just as how one would seek the way on how to be a true gentleman. Like jen, propriety makes the extension from one person to another. Entwining both main virtues together would create a cultivated man with a good moral bone. Li is also a guide as to how one should associate with another by observing good manners and right conduct, one can avoid conflict that may have a tendency to grow bigger. 

Analect 15:32

“Confucius said, ‘When a man’s knowledge is sufficient for him to attain [his position] but his humanity is not sufficient for him to hold it, he will lose it again. When his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it and his humanity is sufficient for him to hold it , if he does not approach the people with dignity, the people will now respect him. If his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it, his humanity sufficient for him to hold it, and he approaches the people with dignity, ye does not influence them with the principle of propriety,it is still not good.”

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Yi as a Cardinal Virtue

十二

~What does Confucius mean by yi (righteousness)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of yi?

~Why does Confucius identify yi as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~What are its expressions?

~How is this virtue related to jen?

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Cheng, 1972

“Yi is the very principle which should make a person’s conduct morally acceptable to others and which should justify the morality of human actions. In other words, it may be suggested that yi is the fundamental principle of morality that confers qualities of righting wrong on human actions and that produces situation which intrinsically satisfies us as moral agents.” 

Yi or righteousness has been defined at the “oughtness of a situation”: every one in society has certain things which he ought to do, and which must be done for their own sake, because they are the morally right things to do (Fung, 1948). Being righteous means that one’s action is in accordance to what one is ought to be doing given his position in the society or in the family. Being righteous is, in a sense, being just, and it also connotes that a righteous man is he who acts modesty and considers the others around him. Several of Confucius’ Analects have greatly contrasted the superior man from the inferior man through their actions just righteousness and profit had been placed on the opposing sides. The higher man as one who understands moral principles and the lower as one who only thinks about profit (Analect 14:24). In Wing- Tsit Chan’s A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, he footnoted Chu Hsi’s own interpretations that was in order with his own philosophy:

“…not to mean to understand but to reach, and said that the superior man reaches the higher level because he follows the Principle of Nature while the inferior man reaches the lower level because he is carried away by selfish human desires.”

In its simplest sense, however, yi means giving up one’s life for justice. Confucius considers yi as the basis of being a gentleman. Yi is important for one who is developing himself to be a gentleman for without righteousness, he will never become the higher man. A gentleman not only puts the moral way before him but he also understands righteousness and uses it as a standard for living. This activity of the moral man can be directly attributed to jen: every man should, without thoughts of personal advantage, unconditionally do what he ought to do, and be what he ought to be. In other words, he should “extend himself so as to include others,” which, in essence is the practice of jen (Fung, pg. 69).

Analect 17:23

“Tzu-lu asked, ‘Does the superior man esteem courage?’ Confucius said, ‘The superior man considers righteousness as the most important. When the superior man has courage but no righteousness, he becomes turbulent. When the inferior man has courage but no righteousness, he becomes a thief.’”

If one’s motives and one’s actions are justified not by morality but by other selfish reasons, then he can no longer be considered as righteous. From simple decision making to big choices that may affect other people around him, a true righteous man is he who follows righteousness as his code of honour (Analect 4:10). With a disposition to do what is morally good, a righteous man preserves his virtues and integrity by doing what is right.  

Analect 15:17

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man regards righteousness as the substance of everything. He practices it according to the principles of propriety. He brings it forth in modesty. And carries it to its conclusion with faithfulness. He is indeed a superior man!’”

Dr. Manuel B. Dy Jr. dedicated a paragraph in his article on The Confucian Jen with jen and its connection to righteousness by going back to Mencius who made the link in the first place: jen is the distinguishing characteristic of the human when embodied in the human conduct; it is the way (Mencius VII B:16). Confucius also described the righteous man in terms of his conduct towards his success in life. If he obtains his wealth by dirtying his hands, then the wealth is nothing but dust. No matter how simple his joys and his possessions in life is, just as long as he remains clean in his conduct and his actions, then he is indeed the righteous man (Analect 7:15). Out of the five important tenets that make up Confucianism, righteousness is one as it is an indispensable condition for jen and for the gentleman. 

Fung, 1976 (pg.42)

“The idea of yi is rather formal, but that of jen is much more concrete. The formal essence of the duties of man in the society is their “oughtness,” because all there duties are what he ought to do. But the material essence of these duties is “loving others”."

Righteousness maintains that one’s action should be rational at all cost without succumbing to temptations. Being able to recognise what is right from what is wrong is one of the characteristics of a righteous man and as it is closely related to jen, by doing what is good and what is right, one is considering others. Respecting someone (jen) means that one should act right towards him (yi). As an example, we can look at Freud’s Psychoanalysis on the human psyche: id, ego, and superego. A righteous mean does not act rashly and impulsively. He does not give in to his id and let his aggressive primal nature get the best of him. He would control his id and ensures that his rationality will provide him what is best (ego) by checking his superego which can tell him what is right from what is wrong. As it is in deep contradiction with the id, the superego would restrain him by reminding him of his society’s rules, ethics, and morals. 

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Shu as an Expression of Jen

十一

~What does Confucius mean by shu (altruism)? What is its most famous expression? Why does he consider it an expression of jen? How does it express jen?

~How does one exercise shu? What is its difference from the Christian Golden Rule?

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Altruism, according to Confucius, is that which serves as the guiding principle for conduct throughout life. Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you (Analect 15:23). This Analect is strikingly similar to what the Christians have termed as the Golden Rule or the Ethic of Reciprocity. The principle of the Golden Rule was announced by Jesus on the Sermon on the Mount.

Matthew 7:12

“So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets.”

Along the same line, Hinduism and Buddhism also speaks of the same thought (but not limited to):

Mahabharata 5:1517

“This is the sum of duty. Do not unto others that which would cause you pain if done to you.”

Udana Varga 5:18

“Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful. 

Scholars of the Confucian tradition have categorised chung or conscientiousness as the positive aspect of the practice and shu or altruism as the negative. Herewith, taken as a whole, is the right way to practice and to exercise jen and now that the principle of chung has been established in the previous entry Chung as an Expression of Jen, we will see how shu is developed. According to Fung Yu-Lan (1976), there practices are not forced because “the original natures of all men have in them a feeling of commiseration, which makes it impossible to them to bear to see the suffering of others.” This is also true in the simplest sense of altruism as it shows a person who helps other, whole-heartedly and without the ego, without asking and expecting for anything in return. Founder of Sociology Auguste Comte coined altruism as the antonym of egoism. Chan’s (1963) commentary on Analect 4:15 took Ch’eng I’s explanations regarding chung and shu: the former as the substance and the latter as the function. 

Analect 14:36

“Someone said, ‘What do you think of repaying hatred with virtue?’ Confucius said, ‘In that case what are you going to repay virtue with? Rather, repay hatred with uprightness and repay virtue with virtue.’”

However negative, shu can be interpreted at the extension of the mind [that is originally good] to others (Chan, 1963). 

Fung, 1947

“Chung is the positive aspect of extending oneself to include one’s fellow men, shu is the negative.”

“Men can also take what they do not desire, to illustrate what other men do not desire. This in truth is what is called shu. Thus, “to extend the scope of one’s actions” to include others, this is the starting point of the practice of jen.” 

Shu is the proactive application of jen since it now involves others. Show goodness to others without hiding a knife behind your back and they too to you. If they treat you wrongly, still do them good because this is the moral way and this is the right way.

Analect 9:13

“Confucius wanted to live among the nine barbarous tribes of the East. Someone said, ‘They are rude. How can you do it?’ Confucius said, ‘If a superior man lives there, what rudeness would there be?’”

From this Analect, we can foresee what will happen when the superior man who was able to cultivate himself (chung) will do such towards others (shu). This is humanity. 

Analect 12:2

“…Do not do unto others what you do not want them to do unto you. Then there will be no complaint against you…”

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Chung as an Expression of Jen

十

~What does Confucius mean by chung (conscientiousness)? Why does he consider it an expression of jen? How does it express jen?

~How does one exercise chung? What is its difference from self-centeredness? What is its difference from stubbornness or narrow-mindedness?

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The way to practice jen, according to Fung (1976), is through the applications of its expressions: chung or conscientiousness and shu or altruism. Since jen materialises a person with “a heart that cannot bear to see others suffer” (Mencius), it greatly implies that the person must extend beyond himself. He must reach out to others- he must connect. Therefore, by practising chung and shu, which are those that grounds jen, also means that one is practising jen. 

The generic knowledge of the importance of being able to know and being able to love oneself is the manifestation of chung. One must thereby be human before he can act as one. In this sense starts the goodness that one can be able to act out through shu. 

Fung, 1976 (Mencius IB, 9)

“If the King, by understanding his own desires, would also come to understand the desires of all his people, and would take measures whereby the people might satisfy these desires, this would result in the kingly way and nothing else.”

One will always see chung and shu as hand in hand and that both works well as a pair because chung and shu implies each other. As chung is one’s obligation to the self, by shu, one looks and acts upon his obligation to the others. However, taking them separately makes the Confucian Golden Rule available.

Analect 6:28

“…A man of humanity, wishing to establish his own character, also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, also helps others to be prominent. To be able to judge others by what us near to ourselves may be called the method of realising humanity.”

Let’s take a look at a Confucian gentleman. He is one who lives by the Way, has a firm grasp on virtue, relies on humanity, and finds pleasure in arts (Analect 7:6) and because he is already a gentleman, it goes to show that he has already developed himself.

Analect 14:45

“…Confucius said, ‘A superior man is one who cultivates himself with seriousness… He cultivates himself so as to give all people security and peace. To cultivate oneself so as to give all people security and peace…”

In this Analect, Chan (1963) made a comment:

“…As Ch’eng I put it, chung is the Way of Heaven, whereas shu is the way of man; the former is substance, while the latter is function. Liu Pao-nan is correct in equating chung with Confucius’ saying, ‘Establish one’s own character,’ and shu with ‘Also establish the character of others. Here is the positive version of the Confucian golden rule. The negative version is only one side of it.’”

In Fung Yu-Lan’s The Spirit of Chinese Philosophy (1947), he echoed Chu Hsi explaining that “to do one’s very best that is chung, to extend this beyond oneself is shu” and by his own, “Chung is the positive aspect of extending oneself to include one’s fellow men…”

So before one can showcase jen, one must first ground himself with chung. He must look back upon his actions and look ahead to make sure that he is following the right Tao. He must examine himself in his every thoughts and actions and maintain the stance that he is a man of humanity and a man for humanity. Therefore the superior man maintains harmony [in his nature and conduct] and does not waver (DotM, 10). Doctrine of the Mean 14 also lists down the qualities of a gentleman who lives in accordance to the Way. 

Fung, 1947 

“A jen man is sure to have good ability in considering others…”

“Jen is the very centre of Confucius’ philosophy and chung and shu are the starting points of jen.”

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T'i as Root of Jen

九

~What does Confucius mean by t’i (brotherly respect)? Why does he consider it a root of jen?

~What are the different ways in which t’i finds expression?

~What does Confucius mean by chung (conscientiousness) Why does he consider it an expression of jen?

~How does one exercise chung? What is its difference from self-centeredness? What is its difference from stubbornness or narrow-mindedness?

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Great Learning, 9

“Brotherly respect is that which one serves his elders, and  deep love is that with which one treats the multitude… The Book of Odes says, ‘They were correct and good to their elder brothers. they wee correct and good to their younger brothers.’ Only when one is good and correct to one’s elder and younger brothers can one teach the people of the country. “

Analect 1:2 tells us that filial piety (hsiao) and brotherly love (t’i) are the root of humanity (jen). For Mencius, the Confucian tradition presents to us five relationships that are crucial: parent and child, minister and ruler, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. The basis for filial piety is different from that of brotherly love. Fung (1976) categorised three out of five of the relationship as familial and the two, however not, can be taken as familial as well. T’i acts merely as some sort of an extension and promotes mutual support from both brothers. The Book of Mencius also points out that the elder and the younger brother should have an understanding of their mutual rank. 

Wright, 1975

“The behavioural content of brotherly love as given by the clan rules clearly underscores its co-operative nature: affection and kindness on the part of elder brothers, respect and deference on the part of younger brothers.” 

Slote and De Vos, 1998

“The reason that filial piety and brotherly love are considered roots of jen for realising full humanity is partly due to the Confucian belief that moral self-cultivation begins with the recognition that biological bondage provides an authentic opportunity for personal realisation. 

Brotherly love means that one is respectful to others just as he is pure in his love. He treats his brother well and lives in harmony with his family and those around him. The concept of brotherly love or brotherly respect is different in the Confucian sense. If one is a brother, by blood and name, does not act as one, can he still be considered as a brother? If one, who is not related to you, acts like a brother to you, can you then consider him as one?

Fung, 1976

“To extend the love for one’s family so as to include persons outside it as well, is to practice that ‘principle of chung (conscientiousness to others) and shu (altruism).

Chung and shu are both the expressions of jen while hsiao and t’i are its roots. The Confucian tradition establishes harmony and peace by being able to overcome the differences and the problems that are created by hierarchical relations. Filial piety and brotherly love or brotherly respect also acts at the applications of jen (Chang, 2013).

Analect 1:2

“Yu Tzu said, ‘Few of those who are filial sons and respectful brothers will show disrespect to superiors, and there has never been a man who is not disrespectful to superior and yet creates disorder. A superior man is devoted to the fundamental. When the root is firmly established, the Tao will grow. Filial piety and brotherly respect are the root of humanity.”

In Fung Y-Lan’s A short History of Chinese Philosophy, he explained the exact definition of chung or conscientiousness as “neither too much nor too little, that is, just right”. Furthermore, in the Doctrine of the Mean, the state of chung is described as “to have no emotions of pleasure or anger, sorrow or joy, welling up”. As one is conscientious, he does his work well with other people in mind. For others, however, they have a different connotation of chung: 

Chan, 1963 (Analect 4:15 commentary)

“All agree, however, on the meanings of chung and shu, which are best expressed by Chu Hsi, namely chung means the full development of one’s [originally good] mind… Lui Pao-nan is correct in equating chung with Confucius’ saying, ‘Establish one’s own character’”.

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Hsiao as Root of Jen

八

~What does Confucius mean by hsiao (filial piety)? Why does he consider it a root of jen?

~What are the different ways in which hsiao is expressed?

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The family is considered as the basic unit of the society. Within that family is a group of people who shares the same name, the same blood, and bond. Each member of the family plays a role that can be exclusive only to them depending on their position and the circumstances. As an example, in the Filipino sense, the mother takes on the role of the “ilaw ng tahanan” and the father as the “haligi ng tahanan”. As the superior members of the family fulfil their roles, as such, the children should also do so. 

Brians et al. (1999) described filial piety as the foremost responsibility of the Chinese people. While still young, the child must be obedient to his parents. He should also be respectful and caring. After  their death, the child must continue his service through ritual sacrifices and honour the family name through excellence in his career and social standing. As it is his responsibility, the child, having grown into a man, must continue the family line and provide sons that would become the next generation. If the wife is barren, he could either take a second wife or adopt. 

In the case of a woman-child, however, it is different. Filial piety, if having married into the man’s family, means that she should be obedient to her in-laws. It is her duty to provide her husband a son that will bear the family name. If she and her mother-in-law are not in good terms, the son must favour his mother and his duty would entail him to remove the wife from her position. He could always get a wife, but he would only have one mother (Brains et al., 1999). Being filial connotes that one is fit to be a son. He is devoted, loyal, and compliant as what a son should be towards his parents. 

Doctrine of the Mean, 19

“…Men of filial piety are those who skilfully carry out the wishes of their forefathers and skilfully carry forward their undertakings… To occupy place of their forefathers, to practice their rites, to perform their music, to reverence those whom they honoured, to love those who were dear to them, to serve the dead as they were served while alive, and to serve the departed as they were served while still with us: this is the height of filial piety.”

Comparable to the Doctrine of the Mean above is Analect 2:5 in which Confucius explained to Fan Ch’ih about what filial piety means. In the Master’s explained, li comes in. For him, li is the way to achieve jen. To be filial also means that one should adhere to the proprieties when it comes to dealing with the passage of life of one’s forefathers. Li, jen, and xiao works together and they can also be incorporated with one another.

Analect 12:2 [li and jen]

“Confucius said, ‘To master oneself and retune to propriety is humanity.’”

Analect 2:5 [li and xiao]

“When parents are alive, see them according to the rules of propriety. When they die, bury them according to the rules of propriety and sacrifice to them according to the rules of propriety.”

The Confucian tradition takes filial piety as fundamental and as the root of of all virtues. Filial piety is not only considered as way of life but it also establishes the ranking of the society (Zi, 2008).

Xiao Jing, 1

“Xiao is the foundation of virtue, and is what all teachings grow out of… The body, the hair, and skin, all have been received from the parents, and so one doesn’t dare damage them- that is the beginning of the xiao.”

“Establishing oneself, practicing the Way, spreading the fame of one’s name to prosperity, so that one’s parents become renowned- that is the end of xiao.”

Care and concern for one’s parents are also important in filial piety. “Never disobey,” was what Confucius told his disciple. If his parents are sick, the son should be worried (2:6). Analects 4:18 also heeds the son to treat his parents well. 

Analect 4:21

“Confucius said, ‘When his parents are alive, a son should not go far abroad; or if he does, he should let them know where he goes.” 

Analect 1:6

“Young men should be filial when at home and respectful to their elders when away from home…”

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Jen as a Cardinal Virtue

七

~What does Confucius mean by jen (human-heartedness)? How different is this meaning from the traditional Chinese meaning of jen?

~What are the different interpretations by commentators of jen?

~Why does Confucius identify jen as one of the cardinal virtues of the superior man? What does it make of the man who possesses them?

~What is the basis of this virtue in man? How can this be developed?

~What are its expressions?

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According to Berling (1996), jen or ren is the source of all virtues. Jen denotes more than just love or kindness or humanism. It is more than just being benevolent or humane towards others and jen, as it is in the Confucian sense, is considered as the basic and highest value because, in a way, the fundamental point of the Confucian philosophy is “learning to be human.”

The Growth of Humanism (Chan, 1963)

If one world could characterise the entire history of Chinese philosophy, that word would be humanism- not the humanism that denies or slights a Supreme Power, but one that professes the unity of manned Heaven. In this sense, humanism has dominated Chinese thoughts from the dawn of its history. 

The central topic that was discussed in the whole of the Analects focuses mainly on jen. Instead of going with the usual traditional meaning of jen as a particular virtue, it was instead taken on as a general virtue (Chan, 1963). Delving deeper into the details about jen, Chan further explained that for Confucius, a true gentleman is a man who is humane. He is the perfect man and he is a man of the golden rule. 

But how exactly? What does is mean to be humane in the Confucian tradition? How does such a man acts? What are his characteristics?

Analect 4:3

“Confucius said, ‘Only the man of humanity knows how to love people and hate people.’”

The Confucian scholar, Tu Wei-ming argues jen as practices connected to the relations and interactions of one within a community as how it is translated in its Chinese character. One interacts with another by being kept in line by propriety because jen is, after all, a social value. Jen keeps the traditions and the rituals alive. It cultivates the person and helps him maintain the character of a gentleman. Jen teaches us to love others with a sense of discipline and genuine accommodation in service of the other. 

Analect 17:6

“Tzu-chang asked Confucius about humanity. Confucius said, ‘One who can practice five things wherever he may be is a man of humanity.’ Tzu-chang asked what the five are. Confucius said, ‘Earnestness, liberality, truthfulness, diligence, and generosity. If one is earnest, one will not be treated with disrespect. If one is liberal, one will win the hearts of all. If one is truthful, one will be trusted. If one is diligent, one will be successful. And if one is generous, one will be able to enjoy the service of others.’”

In my previous entry on the Tao as a Social-Moral Way, I have touched upon the topic of jen and how it can be expressed in the forms of conscientiousness (chung) and altruism (shu) as well as it benighted “one thread that runs through Confucius’ doctrines”. Jen also is in close related with the possession of wisdom as well as righteousness and keeping the Confucian rituals, propriety, etiquette, and whatnot (li). 

Cultivating earnestness, liberality, truthfulness, diligence, and generosity, as mentioned above, mirrors jen as a humanistic goal in terms of being together and involving together with one’s community. 

The Analects 6:21, 12:22, and 19:6 knits wisdom and jen together:

Chan’s Comment on Analect 6:21

In the Confucian ethical system, humanity and wisdom are like two wings, one supporting the other. One is substance, the other is function. The dual emphasis has been maintained throughout history… Elsewhere, courage is added as the third value, and Mencius grouped them with righteousness and propriety as the Four Beginnings.

Analect 17:8

“…One who loves humanity but not learning will be obscured by ignorance. One who loves wisdom but not learning will be obscured by lack of principle. One who loves faithfulness but not learning will be obscured by heartlessness. One who loves uprightness but not learning will be obscured by violence. One who loves strength of character but not learning will be obscured by recklessness.

 Analect 15:32

“Confucius said, ‘When a man’s knowledge is sufficient for him to attain [his position] but his humanity is not sufficient for him to hold it, he will lose it again. When his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it and his humanity is sufficient for him to hold it, if he does not approach the people with dignity, the people will not respect him. If his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it, his humanity sufficient for him to hold it, and he approaches the people with dignity, yet does not influence them with the principle of propriety, it is still not good.’”

Analect 15:32 is in correspondence to the excerpt on the Book of Ch’u in describing such a gentleman. A man of humanity is one who rises above. His possessions are immaterial and does not  pretend for the sake of his own advantage. He is one who establishes his and other’s character, he is cultured, and above all he is worthy. He is one who corrects the actualities of men and does not tolerate mistakes of such kinds that may lead to disharmony in the society. A humane man is brave and sincere.  As he is kind, he is also honest. He is also a man of wisdom and he is filial. Conscientious and altruistic, such a man is not far from the Tao. He places great importance on tradition and arts (wen). Confucius, in Analect 13:27, describes a man that is strong, resolute, simple, and slow to speak as one who is close to humanity. This statement was backed-up by Analect 15:8.

Analect 4:6

“Confucius said, ‘I have never seen one who really loves humanity or one who really hates inhumanity. One who really loves humanity willy not place anything above it. One who really hates inhumanity will practice humanity is such a way that inhumanity will have no change to get at him. Is there anyone who was devoted his strength to humanity for as long as a single day? I have not seen any one without sufficient strength to do so. Perhaps there is such a case, but I have never seen it.’”

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