哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1B

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

B. in the way he lays down the assumptions of the solution to the philosophical problem?

Every problem has a solution. So it goes and in the first part of the course, we were presented with Confucius seeing the absence of harmony in the society as the basic philosophical problem which can be traced back to the incorrect use of names and actualities. 

Set and corresponding with history in Confucius’ time, the eye of the storm can be found in the affairs of the state where the chun tzu is not a chun tzu. It had come to this because for a long time back then, people stopped following the Tao. Confucius, however, has a solution- a solution that has been there all along. 

People have deviated away from the Tao and going back to the Tao is the very solution to the problem. Confucius said it himself,

Analects 18:6

 “If the Way prevailed in the world, there would be no need for me to change it.”

The Way, according to the border guard, has not prevailed in the world for a long time and thus became the reason why there was social disharmony. The collapse of order in the society were brought about by the people’s failure in following the moral laws and their neglect in fulfilling their roles in their family and in their society. It can be said that the problem starts with the individual himself. Therefore, the solution to the problem lies in the correction of the ways of the the individual.

Go back to the Tao. Look at it not only in its surface but look through it. Go back to tradition and look at its implications and importance in the present context. Exercise tradition rituals and maintain goodness and human-heartedness in your being. Lastly, develop your character into that of a chun tzu. 

Analects 7:6

“Set your will on the Way. Have a firm grasp on virtue. Rely on humanity. Find recreation in the arts.”

As we human beings are social animals, Confucius directed that we should associate with people in goodness and with an undisputed selflessness. In relating to our family, we must be filial and respectful. We must do our duties as required, as it befits our position and responsibility in the family. In relating to other people, we must be humane and right in our words and actions. Conscientiousness and altruism are important in expressing this. 

Analects 1:2

“Yu Tau said, ‘Few of those who are filial sons and respectful brothers will show disrespect to superiors, and there has never been a man who is not disrespectful to superiors and yet creates disorder. A superior man is devoted to the fundamentals. When the root is firmly established, the moral law will grow. Filial piety and brotherly respect are the root of humanity.”

Traditions is also one of the main focus in Confucian thought. It maintains social harmony and employs that a gentleman is one who follows tradition. Going back means maintaining the rituals that has been handed down from generation to generation and continuing to practice it.

Next is nurturing the goodness and the intelligence that one is born with through education. Everyone should also be given the equal opportunity to learn regardless on one’s social standing in the community. If one is interested, let him learn.

Analects 7:8

“Confucius said, ‘I do not enlighten those who are not eager to learn, nor arouse those who are not anxious to give an explanation of themselves. If I have presented one corner of the square and they cannot come back to me with the other three, I should not go over the points with them.’”

Since the problem also lies with the individual, Confucius tells us the the solution also lies within the individual. By becoming a chun tzu, in the Confucian way, one can slowly correct and straighten one’s character that will then cause a domino effect in everything else. By becoming a Confucian gentleman who enters himself on the Tao and expresses his being humane through conscientiousness and altruism, he is able to correct the wrongs in the society that are the causes of the absence in social harmony. 

Become the superior man. Revel on the higher things and shun selfish acts. Form your character through the Way, perform your moral duties, and deal well with the people around you.

Analect 1:6

“Young men should be filial when at home and respectful to their elders when away from home. They should be earnest and faithful. They should love all extensively and be intimate with men of humanity. When they have any energy to spare after the performance of moral duties, they should use it to study literature and the arts.”

*****

Development of a Chun Tzu

六

~What does Confucius mean by the chun-tzu (superior man)? How different is this from the traditional Chinese meaning of chun-tzu?

~What are the basic differences between the superior man and the inferior man? How crucial is this difference in the philosophy of Confucius?

~How is the development of the superior man a solution to the problem of social disharmony?

~Can any person be a superior man? What should be developed in him? How should he be developed? 

*****

In the Chinese tradition, the highest position that a man could attain in his lifetime is that of a sage. As he is the ideal man, this position is almost impossible to attain and so, Confucius presented the modified chun-tzu: the gentleman, the superior man. He is cultivated and mature. A chun-tzu acts humanely and follows only the highest of ethical standards. 

Analect 7:36

“The Master was mild, and yet dignified; majestic, and yet not fierce; respectful, and yet easy.”

The Analects of Confucius devoted much of its space in defining the superior man by comparing him with the inferior man and providing the standards and the actions of such a man (the title appeared 107 times in the Analects [Chan, 1963]). 

Analect 14:24

“The superior man understands the higher things (moral principles); the inferior man understands the lower principles (profit).”

Chan (1963) described the Confucian goodness as something that is righteousness as opposed to profit. 

A Chinese man of a noble birth can be considered a superior man. Translated literally, chun-tzu means “son of the ruler”. He is brought up like a civilised person who is educated and his outstanding etiquette makes him a man of name. With this, he can easily rise up as he had been prepared in his childhood and youth to attain a position in the government with the advantage of being born in a family of high status. BUT, in the Confucian sense and tradition, this does not automatically equate him as a chun-tzu. 

Confucius believes that any man can be developed and folded as a chun-tzu.

For him, a chun-tzu is a man of character. He puts the Tao before him and lives by with careful understanding and accordance to the moral laws and right virtues. He is one who accommodates others and he is one who grounds himself on the fundamentals. Additionally, he does not concern himself with poverty (Analect 15:31).

Analect 14:7

“Superior men, and yet not always virtuous, there have been, alas! But there has never been a mean man (inferior man), and, at the same time, virtuous!”

A chun-tzu focuses himself with righteousness (yi) and benevolence (jen). His love and his loyalty for his family and his respect for the elders makes him a person of character. He cultivates himself through education and arts (wen) and looks back on tradition and desires for harmony and peace. The inferior man, however, is opposite. He concerns himself with profit and acts only when there is something in return or if it is to his advantage. 

Analect 4:11

“The Master said, ‘The superior man thinks of virtue; the small man thinks of comfort. The superior man thinks of the sanctions of the law; the small man thinks of favours which he may receive.’”

Anelect 13:26

“Confucius said, ‘The superior man is dignified but not proud; the inferior man is proud but not dignified.’”

Confucius also pointed out the conditions for a man to become a chun-tzu. If he sets his will on the Way, if his grasp on the virtue is strong, if he relies on humanity and finds joy in arts (Analect 7:6) then he is a man of character. 

In relation to a jen, Chan had something to say:

“…to Confucius the man of jen is the perfect man. He is the true chun-tzu. He is a man of the golden rule, for, ‘wishing to establish his own character he also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, he also helps others to be prominent.’ (Analect 6:28).”

A superior man is a man of humanity. He reaches out to others and cultivates himself for others. The Master’s discipline, Tzu-lu, once asked him about the superior man:

Analect 14:45

“…Confucius said, ‘He cultivates himself so as to give the common people security and peace… He cultivates himself so as to give all people security and peace. To cultivate oneself as to give all people security and peace…”

Because he is a man of peace and he is one whose actions are more than his words, a chun-tzu is one who will make it as his duty to destroy the root causes of social harmony. He is one who does not stray from the Way and encourages others to do the same.

Analect 6:11

“The Master said to Tsze-hsia, ‘Do you be a scholar after the style of the superior man, and not after that of the mean man.’”

*****

Basic Goodness and Intelligence of Man

五

~What does Confucius mean by the basic goodness and intelligence of man? Why does he assume these and not something else?

~How do such assumptions determine the direction of his philosophy?

~Are his assumptions consistent with each other and can be maintained coherently?

*****

A child grows up indoctrinated with the distinction between what is good and what is bad. If a child does something bad, he will be automatically scolded and called as such. If a child is otherwise, he will be praised and rewarded along with the title of being good. As he continues to grow up, more and more he will experience things that will require him to stop and deliberate the actions that he is about to do. 

Further on, he will start to experience complex things that will require him a careful deliberation before proceeding and just as he was conditioned to do so, he will always make his decisions based on the distinctions of what is good and what is bad.

Analect 6:17 tells us that “man is born with uprightness…” A man is born good and it follows that the others around him are as well. Being human reflects that one is good. Being human reflects that he is naturally inclined to do good.

Chan, 1963

“This means that Confucius was not the only first one in Chinese philosophy to assume a definite position about human nature, but also the first to teach that human nature is originally good.”

If we look at Analect 7:29, it will also tell us goodness is right by our side. Mencius furthers this:

“Man’s nature is naturally good just as water naturally flows downward. There is no man without this good nature; neither is there water that does not flow downward.”

The basis of the given Analects tells us what similarities and the differences of man encompasses. There is a paradox, yes, but we must remember that every individual is unique and each one of us is complex. 

Analect 17:2

“By nature men are alike. Through practice they have become far apart.”

To show such “difference”, Confucius presented us with Analects 6:19 and 16:9 that provides the classification of man according to his capacity for knowledge. He also maintained that there should be no class distinction in education (Analect 15:38) but it is up to us on how we can cultivate our own individual capacity for knowledge. However, the Analects 6:19, 16:9, and 17:3 somehow sounds discriminative. Confucius somehow settled the score by forwarding Analect 17:2. 

In another light, Confucius provided education so that man can develop his character and broaden his knowledge. Again, another paradox- Analect 17:3. Here, society will answer for us by saying that there will always be ranks and hierarchies and that how people look at you will be determined through your wisdom. If we take a look at Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World, we will see that people are divided (Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas, and Epsilons) according to their intelligence as a caste system and their functions. 

Analect 16:9

“Those who are born with knowledge are the highest type of people. Those who learn through study are the next. Those who learn through hard work are still the next. Those who work hard and still do not learn are really the lowest type.”

Just like how one develops his knowledge, a man must also learn how to exercise goodness through his actions and his way of life so that he can foster this goodness in him. 

哲学 Synthesis Paper: 1A

哲学

What is philosophy as demonstrated in Ancient Chinese Philosophy…

1. by Confucius…

A. in the way he perceives the philosophical problem?

I would, at times, hear my friends complain to me whenever I meet them. “I lost my phone,” one told me, “I know it’s just inside my room. I placed it on the bedside table before I slept last night so I know it’s still there somewhere.” My other friends would go on with a speech akin to this, except that it would be their key, or notebook, or whatever material things that they have. They would tell me when was the last time that they have seen and used it or where they left it. I never answer. How should I know? Sometimes, it would take two to three days for them to find their missing possessions once again. 

This situation reminds me of my mother. She taught me that pens and writing materials of all kind belong in the pencil holder or the pencil case. I was told what should and should not be placed inside the drawers of whatever kinds of bureau there is. She told me that used clothes belong in the laundry basket and she told me that white garments should be separated from the coloured ones when I’m doing my laundry. More often than not, I would grumble in response and roll my eyes. Then, as a result, things don’t usually go according to plan. 

Now, if I had only separated my white clothes from the coloured ones and did not wait until the next morning to wash them properly, then they’d still look good as new. If only I kept my pen in its proper place after using it, then I probably won’t have to borrow from my classmate in panic and desperation when my teacher announced a surprise quiz. Now as I am imagining and reliving these moments, I cannot help but visualise a laughing Confucius in front of me with a look on his face that says, “I told you so.”

My experience above, in a sense, tells us the main philosophical problem that made Confucius spend most of his time wandering about in efforts to correct such problems. The incorrect use of names and actualities lead to the absence of social harmony. The Analects 6:23, 12:11, and 13:3 pointed out the problem on names and actualities. Herewith, Confucius explained why:

Analect 12:17

“Chi K’ang asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, ‘To govern means to rectify. If you lead on the people with correctness, who will dare not to be correct?’”

Analect 13:3

“If language is not in accord with truth, then things cannot be accomplished. If things cannot be accomplished, then ceremonies and music will not flourish. If ceremonies and music will not flourish, then punishment will not be just. If punishments are not just, then the people will not know how to move hand and foot. Therefore the superior man will give only names that can be described in speech and say only what can be carried out in practice. With regard to his speech, the superior man does not take it lightly.”

The philosophy of Confucius highlights social order and strong adherence to the Tao. 

Chan, 1963 [pp. 15-16]

“In insisting on the rectification of names, Confucius was advocating not only the establishment of social order in which names and ranks are properly regulated, but also the correspondence of words and action, or in its more philosophical aspect, the correspondence of name and actuality.”

If names are accurately used in accordance to their proper usage, if one’s actions, behaviour, and and conduct justifies one’s social role in the community, responsibility and position in the family, job title and status, and whatnot then there will be no complications that will lead to misunderstanding and complex problems since these are the elements or the manifestations of a discord in society that destroys harmony. Going against the natural order of things will greatly aggravate the laws that were established by the Heaven, man and nature will stir up a storm in the society. If we allow this chaos to flood in our society then it will lead us to a point where nothing can be salvaged and restored to how it was before. However, if we act upon against the storm and follow the Way, we can sure that peace and harmony will prosper in the society. 

Social disorder can sprout almost anywhere. Sometimes is starts in the family. It can also be seen in the workplace or in the streets. Social disorder can emerged out from our association with our neighbours and it can also start within ourselves. Such unfavourable circumstances therefore led Confucius out in the streets to correct the errors, instigate the Tao, and teach us people the values of humanity (jen) through conscientiousness (chung) and altruism (shu), filial piety, as well as the importance of tradition through rituals.

According to him, a gentleman is a man who puts the Tao before anything else. He is also one who looks back on tradition. He is one who acts with care and righteousness. He is “one who has a heart that cannot bear to see others suffer (Mencius)” and helps his neighbours without asking or expecting anything in return. As he is a gentleman, he is mature, cultivated, and humane. 

Analect 4:5

“A superior man never abandons humanity even for the lapse of a single meal. In moments of haste, he acts according to it. In times of difficulty of confusion, he acts according to it.”

The Tao serves as a moral law and a person who acts according to the Tao is loyal and just. He is a gentleman who corrects the wrong and change it to what is right. He is one who maintains social harmony and acts as a model to the people around him. 

He is one who rectifies the philosophical problems. 

*****

*Temporary entry. The contents of this entry might be changed on the final submission of the synthesis paper. 

The Importance of Tradition

四

~What does Confucius mean by tradition? Which tradition is he talking about?

~What role does tradition play in the philosophy of Confucius?

~How does Confucius deal with tradition?

*****

The time of Confucius’ “arrival” in China had been most appropriate. It was as if that Heaven had intentionally designed him to appear at a time when the country’s long standing ideologies were at risk. The traditional Chinese beliefs began its decay which have invariably resulted in social disharmony and moral decline. To name some of the happenings during this time, we can go back to Creel on his Chinese Thoughts: From Confucius to Mao and pinpoint several events that portrayed disharmony and decline. The decentralisation of the state, murder, conspiracy, revolts, usurpation, exploitation, and some others domed the whole of China before and during Confucius’ time. Later on, the Master will see this as a chance to revive and reinforce the societal morals and tradition.

Moving forward, during the time of Dr. Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), the influence of Christianity and Western culture have severely penetrated the Chinese community. Between 1900 and 1920, when the Qing dynasty was at its end, a revolt against Confucianism emerged on the grounds that old traditions and ideas were the main causes of China’s problems. In 1905, China began to abandon the Confucian system of education. Afterwhich, a series of events followed through until the end the the World War II. As a result, the major doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven (T’ien Ming) became irrelevant because there was no more emperor. (In the Confucian political system, the emperor’s role as a god to be worshipped and as the pillar that supports the society.) 

During these times, the identity of China was being torn in two- to keep the taxing Confucian traditions or to face and accept the social and political realities that were washed upon the shores of China:

Berling, 1982

“Great Confucians sought periodically to revive and renew the moral, intellectual, and spiritual vigour of the tradition.. Until the 1890s, serious-minded Chinese saw Confucianism, despite its failures to realise its ideal society, as the source of hope for China and the core of what it meant to be Chinese.

Fung, 1984

(The Permanent and Changeable in Chinese Philosophy)

“When China is industrialised, the old system must go and with it will go its Confucianistic rational justification. But this is not to say that there is nothing that is not relative in the social philosophy of Confucianism.”

Looking at change in the perspective of time, we can see that the essence of the problem remained the same and this problem did not only victimise China but most of the states all over the world have also experienced the same circumstance under different conditions. However, this is not the highlight. What we should understand is that ancient times or contemporary times: the world will always be at the mercy of change. In fact, it is correct to say that change will always change and just like how there are two sides of a coin, there are those will oppose change just as there will be other who will be more accepting. Wing-Tsit Chan even described the universe as a realm of perennial activity. 

The Analects 2:11, 7:1, and 7:19 expressed the importance of tradition. As a man who reviews the old so as to find the new (2:11), Confucius articulated his love for tradition through the Analects 7:1 and 7:19.

“I transmit but do not create. I believe in and love the ancients…”

“I am one who is fond of antiquity, and earnest in seeking it there.”

Earlier, the people of contemporary China abandoned tradition on the grounds that it is the root cause of the problems that they are facing. If we look at it in the Confucian point of view, we will see that it is not the case but rather, it will tell us that breaking off from tradition is one of the many causes of social disharmony. Traditions are established by following the Way and neglecting it means that we are also neglecting traditions. 

He who places value on tradition is a gentleman. Tradition makes culture and society. It defines one’s heritage, lifestyle, and individuality. However, modern times and industrialisation continues to pose a threat that can make or break tradition. 

Things are changing, that’s a given. All the rituals and customs that we are practicing nowadays are nothing compared to the ones before. The diversity of the world is hard to manage and people are always in conflict with each other in terms of their interests, beliefs, and practices. However, change can also be seen as good. Change have allowed us to live our lives comfortably and easily. Embracing change allowed us to keep up with the modern demands of the now. So how are we to approach this? 

We can accept change but we must always look back and allow tradition to keep us in line. The problems of the now can be seen in the old and the only way to solve them is to “go back to nature”. The people of the old are more experienced. They understand the nature of things and the nature of life better than the people of the now do. Just as modernity gave birth to new things, it also created new distractions that stalls us from being able to do the things that we are supposed to do as well as keeping us away from the right path. Through the preservation of tradition, one will always be reminded of the Way and the importance if its learnings regardless of time. Expressing it through rituals and imprinting the traditional virtues inside us thereby making it as our guide, one can always be sure that his or her actions are in accordance to the Way. 

*****

The Tao as a Social-Moral Way

三

~What does Confucius mean by the Tao (Way)? What are its fundamental characteristics? What are its expressions?

~What role does it play in the philosophy of Confucius?

*****

The Tao begins as a journey. Along the road, the Tao can also be a map and a lamp that guides and lights the way. In this sense, we can look at the Tao as a Northern Star. By following the way, according to the Tao, one can be sure that the goal will be reached. 

Confucius now presents us with six Analects: 1:2, 1:11, 2:4, 4:5, 4:15, and 8:13 and an addition from the Doctrine of the Mean (13) echoing the Analects. These Analects and Doctrine of the Mean plunges us further into the core of the Tao. But before anything else, let us first establish the importance of the Way according to the Master. 

Confucius considers the Tao as pre-eminent. Hence, it is not only of utmost importance but it also carries with it the weight of the philosophical tradition. He stressed that a gentleman puts the Tao before anything and everything else without, of course, neglecting the daily duties of living and of his identity as a human person. How should one go on with this? 

First, we must understand that Tao is a moral law and because it is moral, it embodies our actions and our efforts to live our lives accordingly. Easy to say but difficult to do: this is the Tao. But how should one follow and approach the Tao?

Confucius provides us with an answer:

Analect 1:2

“A superior man is devoted to the fundamentals. When the root is firmly established, the Tao will grow. Filial piety and brotherly respect are the roots of humanity.”

One must approach the Tao by heeding the fundamentals and through this, the Tao will soon follow like a seed sprouting from the ground. Following the Analect above, Confucius did more by telling us that it is through devotion to the fundamentals where the Tao can grow. He also tells us what these fundamentals are. 

Respect for family, not only in the filial sense but also as one’s social responsibility, is a fundamental of the Tao. This discussion extends to Analect 1:11. In this theme, a son is a son- he will fulfil his nature by following the way of his father through and through. If the son, even after the death of his father, still follows the way, he is befitting in his role as the father’s son. Filial piety, as mentioned above, also extends to social responsibility. Being faithful to one’s family also implies one’s faithfulness to the state. 

If the way of the father is the Tao, then that very road will be set for the son to follow. 

Now, how will the son continue the Way? 

Another foundation in the philosophy of Confucius presents itself to us here. This foundation is the main theme of his conversations and it has appeared in fifty-eight Analects. According the him, “the man of jen is the perfect man (Chan, 1963):

Analect 6:28

“A man of humanity, wishing to establish his own character, also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, also helps others to be prominent. To be able to judge others by what is near to ourselves may be called the method of realising humanity.“

Humanity or jen can be expressed in the terms of conscientiousness (chung) and altruism (shu) that is the very thread that runs through the Master’s credos (Analect 4:15). The Doctrine of the Mean also poses the same matter: 

“Therefore the superior man governs men as men, in accordance with human nature, and as soon as they change, he stops. Chung and shu are not far from the Way. What you do not wish others to do to you, do not do to them (the golden rule).”

Chu Hi, a Confucian scholar from the Song dynasty, describes chung or conscientiousness as the full development of one’s mind and shu or altruism as the extension of that mind to others. For Che’eng I, the prior is the Way of Heaven (substance) and the latter is the way of man (function) (Chan, 1963). Thus, by establishing one’s own character, he also establishes the character of the other as stated in Analect 6:28.

Humanity is a web that connects us to other people. It teaches us the value of altruism in its pure sense: selflessness. Altruism means that we are in awareness of other people’s well-being without expecting anything in return or without simply acting for our own self-interest. It (humaneness) is, according to Tu Wei Ming, Confucius’ greatest contribution on the Chinese culture. Thus, a superior man is humane and acts accordingly whatever the circumstance may be:

Analects 4:5

“If a superior man departs from humanity, how can he fulfil that name? A superior man never abandons humanity even for the lapse of a single meal. In moments of haste, he acts according to it. In times of difficulty or confusion, he acts according to it.”

Analect 2:4 also tells us the Way that the Master followed. From learning to character formation, his perplexities dissipated. As he began to grow chronologically, he knew himself better and he can hear his heart without noise. He was able to reach the point where he can forge the road with confidence for he knows the right way by heart; for his heart has always been steadfast and well-grounded in the fundamentals of the Way.

****

Names and Actualities

二

~What does Confucius mean by non-rectified names? Why does he point this out as the manifest expression of the absence of the Way?

~Why does he require that this situation be addressed first? Is his argument valid?

*****

Imagine this: 

One day, someplace far from China and England, Shakespeare and Confucius met on the road. Being the gentleman that he is, Confucius invited the Bard of Avon for a cup of tea for that was all that he could offer at that moment. Shakespeare accepted the invitation, and so the two of them sat under a tree by the dusty road. 

They began to talk about things- anything. They talked about the commonalities that they can pluck from the branches of their thoughts; they talked trivial things, some important, some not. Then, out of the blue, the playwright looked at the seasoned man in front of him and asked him,

“What’s in a name?”

*****

“Names and phrases, in a Master’s view,” according to Durrant and Shankman (2012), “are messengers of meaning and intention…”

The Analects 6:23, 12:11, and 13:3 presents to us the dangers that come in the game of thrones and the dire consequences that tails he who uses names and beings negligently. Additionally however, from these independent and at the same time correlated cases, we can find a third gap: whichever it may be- the prior, the latter, or both- so as long as one belongs in the same patch, it is safe to say that the person will be affected, directly or indirectly.

Confucius believes that names and their applications are the manifestations of personal and social ethos. Thus, improper utilisation of words is but a symptom of social disorder (Durant & Shankman, 2012). The interplay of names and its proper corresponding meaning is a complex feat. In other writings regarding the nature, the application, and the nuances in the appropriateness of name usage in semantics, we are faced with its complexities and its extremities in particularity and in its conceptuality. There are also those who are transparent in their opposition towards the Confucian view on the matter (such as Shakespeare's 'what's in a name' purports a different connotation). Names and actuality’s focus in the Confucian maxim weights heavily. Wing-Tsit Chan, on his Chinese Philosophy (1963), offered a commentary regarding Analect 13:3 on The Humanism of Confucius. Chan stated that, on the rectification of names,

“…a name must not only correspond to its actuality, but also that rank, duties, and functions must be clearly defined and fully translated into action. Only then can a name be considered to be correct or rectified.”

In Japan, they have three systems of writing (hiragana, katakana, and kanji [Chinese characters]) that are used together depending on the sentence, the word itself, and how it should mean or the thought. Sometimes, there are instances wherein one kanji character would mean two or more different things. There are also instances wherein one word can be written in two different characters and on top of that, the combination of two characters would sometimes have a completely different meaning regardless of their original literal translation or denotation. And so, as to avoid confusion, one would usually ask you how one writes (what kanji/character) his/her’s name. Such caution leaves no room for misinterpretation. In the third Analect (13:3), Confucius also tells us that being a gentleman means that one must be careful is such things. There is a simple cause and effect relationship in the right and wrong usages of names:

“Therefore, the noble man will give only names that can be described in speech and say only what can be carried out in practice. With regard to his speech, the noble man does not take it lightly.”

Yu-Lan (1947) spoke of China’s emphasis on ethics as the very kernel of spirituality. In it’s simplest sense, ethics tells us the ideal being or character of a human person. It also tells us how we should live and how we should our given human judgement. Now, in this sense, the Analects can be considered as our guide towards the right path. Yu-Lan, along the lines of ethics in the spirit of the philosophy, tackled the importance of politics within the said discipline. He broached on the subject of names and actualities through Gongsun Long’s “a white horse is not a horse” with a short exposition on politics. Herewith, the names and actualities corresponds to “ethical-political activity” of correcting the self (Durrant & Shankman, 2012):

Analect 12:17

Ji Kang Xi asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied saying: “To govern means to ‘rectify’ If you were to lead the people with correctness, who would not be rectified?”

Analect 13:13

The Masted said: “If you can correct yourself, what problem will you have in governing? If you can’t correct yourself, how can you correct others?”

The three Analects (6:23, 12:11, and 12:3), as mentioned above, implies a relationship at play in practical application. In a sense, saying that when a minister is not a minister also reflects a cornered vessel that has no corner and by this implication, a domino effect dances before us- a series of interconnected confusions that may likely result into fractals- and through the correct use of names exhibits a person’s character. Moreover, if that person is a king who demonstrates such qualities in accordance to the Way, he will be able to govern and maintain a harmonious society. 

*****

The Involuntary Seducer

He shot an empty word, just for a ball,

Into the blue- it made a woman fall. 

-The Gay Science, F.N.

The Absence of Social Harmony

一

~What does Confucius mean by disharmony? Why does he consider it the main philosophical problem?

~Why does he identify the root cause of this problem with the absence of the Way in society? What does he mean by such absence?

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‘How changed Zarathustra is! Zarathustra has become - a child, an awakened-one: what do you want to now with the sleepers?’  -Thus Spoke Zarathustra*

‘The Way has not prevailed in the world for a long time. Heaven is going to use your master as a bell with a wooden tongue.’ -Analect 3:24

The old man and the border guard were able to recognise the condition of the people from each of their respective society that then became the bedrock of Confucius and Zarathustra’s pursuit.

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At that point in history, following the Way was something that should be embedded and prioritised to a person with a Chinese identity. Fung Yu-Lan, in his The Spirit of Chinese Philosophy (1947),  stressed the importance of this context with regards to the ideal foundations of a Chinese education.

In line with this, if a person who follows the Way weds into a society with people who also shares the same principle as him will thereby result in a harmonious society, which is one of the goals of the Confucian discipline.

In the setting of Analect 3:24 we find a Confucius in exile because of how he is governed by his strong adherence to the Way. Enter the border guard who was able to detect what was wrong in the picture. He duly noted that “The way has not prevailed in the world for a long time.” The Confucian tradition identifies the problem in this situation: disharmony in the society is caused by those who chose to walk on opposing sides of the “right path” for they do not adhere to the Way (Tao Te Ching, 53, also mentions the same issue). This disharmony can be seen as the inability of a society to function because of the dislocation of the bones that make up its proper structure. “If the Way is cultivated without deviation, then Nature cannot cause misfortune” (Chan, 1963).

However, in Analect 18:6, we are faced with a more challenging matter. “The whole world is swept as thought by a torrential flood,” was the remark of the farmer. During this period, the region of the Zhou dynasty was divided into seven states that were at war with each other. In the end, it was the Qin who emerged victorious from the war. Unfortunately, the Qin rulers were unjust, harsh, and they imposed heavy labor among the people. China was anarchic during this time and the nucleus of the problem lies at the governing faction of each state. Without stability, the demands of the rich are being met by the poor who have, by then, succumbed into their own unescapable fate.

Following the events in the latter Analect, Confucius disagreed with the contempt of the farmers that they displayed through their words. The poor people were then conditioned through learned helplessness and so, this routine existence made them accept their unfavourable position in the society that is also causing an imbalance in nature. Confucius, on the other hand, remained solid in his belief. Albeit lamenting for the loss of hope, he resolved in his heart that this issue would not be if there is hope and if the Way is followed.

The Way had ceased to prevail in he world and as a consequence, the world was swept as though by a torrential flood. If the way was followed, this would not be the case. And so, Confucius asserted his goal and his need to correct the posture of the society.

Thus began Zarathustra’s down-going.

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*The author of this entry decided to mention the similarity of an event/situation in the said Analects and in Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra. However, the author did so with caution- is it right to extract something from the West and display it in an Oriental backdrop? The ultimate question of whether or not there is a Chinese Philosophy affected the content of this entry but the author wants to take the side of Zhang Dainian: no matter how distinct and different both sides are, philosophy is but a generic term that encompasses both sides of the coin.